Old NCERT Summary (RS Sharma): Jainism & Buddhism | History for UPSC CSE PDF Download

Causes of Origin

1. Reaction of Ruling Class (Kshatriyas) against Brahmanical Dominance:

• Background: During the Vedic period, Brahmins gained significant influence and power.
• Reason: The ruling Kshatriya class, feeling the encroachment on their authority, reacted against the dominance of Brahmanical traditions and sought alternative paths for spiritual guidance.

2. Tensions Between Shudras, Vaishyas, and Higher Varnas:

• Post-Vedic Age: With the establishment of a rigid Varna system, tensions rose between the lower Varnas, particularly Shudras and Vaishyas, and the higher Varnas (Brahmins and Kshatriyas).
• Reason: Discrimination and limited opportunities for Shudras and Vaishyas within the hierarchical social structure.

3. Introduction of New Agricultural Economy:

• Geographic Focus: Primarily in north-eastern India, including eastern UP and north Bihar.
• Economic Changes: Iron axes were used to clear forests, and iron ploughs facilitated the expansion of agriculture.
• Challenge: The practice of cattle sacrifice was causing erosion of cattle wealth, which was essential for the new agricultural economy. This necessitated a reformation of Vedic religious practices.

4. Rise in Cities, Economic Expansion, and Specialization:

• Economic Developments: The emergence of cities, economic expansion, and the specialization of arts and crafts.
• Introduction of Coinage: The prevalence of punch-marked coins in regions such as eastern UP and Bihar.
• Trade Control: Vaishyas, engaged in trade, sought to improve their social position within the Varna system.

5. Traders' Support for Jainism and Buddhism:

• Financial Support: Traders, particularly Vaishyas, provided generous donations to spiritual leaders such as Mahavira and Buddha.
• Reasons:
  • Non-Importance to Varna System: Jainism and Buddhism initially did not emphasize the rigid Varna system, offering an alternative to those facing discrimination.
  • Promotion of Trade: The principles of non-violence preached by these religions led to the cessation of constant wars, promoting a more conducive environment for trade and commerce.
  • Attitude towards Interest: Brahmanical law books discouraged lending money on interest, affecting the esteem of Vaishyas. Jainism and Buddhism provided an alternative path that did not condemn financial activities.

6. Appeal to Modern and Orthodox Elements:

• Modern Elements: People attracted to the inclusivity of these religions, offering an alternative spiritual path.
• Orthodox Elements: Those displeased with the rise in social inequality and accumulation of wealth sought a return to a simpler way of life.

7. Backlash and Opposition:

• Criticism: Orthodox elements within Brahmanical traditions opposed the accumulation of coins and the social inequalities arising from economic growth.
• Desire for Simplicity: Critics desired a return to a primitive, simple way of life as opposed to the complexities brought about by urbanization and economic expansion.
• Response from Jainism and Buddhism: Both religions, through their emphasis on simplicity and ascetic living, provided a path that appealed to both modern and orthodox elements in Brahmanical society.

Jainism and Mahavira

Doctrines of Jainism

1. Non-violence (Ahimsa):

• Central Principle: Jainism places a profound emphasis on non-violence as a core principle.
• Ahimsa in Practice: Followers strive to avoid harm or violence to all living beings, emphasizing compassion and reverence for life.

2. Truth (Satya):

• Importance of Truth: Truthfulness (Satya) is considered a fundamental virtue in Jain doctrine.
• Commitment to Honesty: Jains adhere to honesty and truth in thought, speech, and action.

3. No Stealing (Asteya):

• Ethical Conduct: The principle of asteya prohibits stealing or dishonest acquisition of others' belongings.
• Respect for Property: Jains uphold ethical conduct and respect for others' property rights.

4. No Acquisition of Property (Aparigraha):

• Minimalism: Jainism advocates the practice of aparigraha, promoting minimalism and detachment from material possessions.
• Detachment from Worldly Possessions: Followers focus on spiritual pursuits rather than accumulating wealth.

5. Continence (Brahmacharya):

• Chastity and Self-restraint: Brahmacharya emphasizes chastity and self-restraint in personal conduct.
• Moderation in Desires: Jains seek to control desires and maintain a disciplined lifestyle.

6. Discarding Clothes:

• Mahavira's Addition: Mahavira introduced the practice of discarding clothes completely as a symbol of extreme austerity.
• Distinction in Lifestyle: This choice led to a distinction between two sects in Jainism: Digambar and Shvetambar.

7. Recognition of God:

• Existence of God: While Jainism acknowledges the existence of gods, it places them below Jina in significance.
• Relative Importance: The focus is on spiritual enlightenment and liberation rather than divine worship.

8. Varna System and Birth:

• Non-condemnation: Jainism does not outright condemn the varna system but believes in the influence of past deeds on one's current birth in a particular varna.
• Karmic Influence: Mahavira's belief included the notion that one's birth is determined by accumulated sins or virtues from past lives.

9. Liberation and Spiritual Goals:

• Freedom from Worldly Bonds: The ultimate aim of Jainism is liberation from the cycle of rebirth and worldly attachments.
• Triratna (Three Gems): Liberation is sought through the practice of right knowledge, right conduct, and right action, known as "triratna" or "Ratnatraya" in Jainism.

10. Relationship with Brahmanical Religion:

• Indistinct Demarcation: Jainism did not distinctly separate itself from Brahmanical religion.
• Limited Attraction: This lack of clear demarcation from existing beliefs may have contributed to Jainism's limited success in attracting followers.

Reasons for the Spread of Jainism

1. Chandragupta Maurya became a Jain and spent last years of his life in Karnataka as a Jain ascetic, spreading Jainism to South India.
2. Great famine of Magadh (~260 BC). Many Jains migrated south under Bhadrabahu while several stayed under Sthalabahu. The former spread Jainism in the South. Had differences and mistrust with others upon return to Magadh. Council was convened at Pataliputra. South ones boycotted it. Hereafter, southerners = digambars and Magadhans = shvetambars.
3. Jaina monastic establishments called Basadis were granted land and patronage by K’taka kings.
4. Spread to Kalinga (Orissa) in 4th century BC and was patronized by Kharavela in 1st century BC. Subsequently to Tamil Nadu. To Gujarat, Rajasthan in later centuries, with Jainas engaged in trade and commerce.
   Jainism did not receive as much state patronage as Buddhism did and did not spread as fast as Buddhism in earlier times. However, it has stayed in places where it has spread, while Buddhism practically disappeared from the Indian subcontinent.

Contributions of Jainism

• First serious attempt to mitigate evils of vama order.
• Discarded Sanskrit as a language of the Brahmins and adopted Prakrit — the common language — to spread their doctrine.
• Religious literature written in Ardhamagadhi and compiled in 6th century AD at Vallabhi (Gujarat).
• Adoption of Prakrit helped its growth and thus the development of regional languages. Sauraseni language → Marathi. Jains composed earliest works in Apbhramsh which is the source for several regional languages.
• Jain literature contains epics, puranas, drama, novels. Much of this is still in manuscript form.
• Wrote extensively in Kannada and thus helped in its growth.
• Jainas used Sanskrit to compose many texts in early medieval times.

Buddhism and Gautam Buddha

• Born in 563 BC in a sakya kshatriya family in Kapilavastu (foothills of Nepal).
• Father was the head of the republican clan of Sakyas and mother was from Kosala dynasty.
• Siddhartha (Buddha) inherited some republican sentiments due to his place of birth.
• Kept roaming for 7 years and attained enlightenment under a pipal tree at Bodhgaya.
• First sermon at Sarnath.
• Died in 483 BC in Kusinagar (Peoria, eastern UP)

Doctrines of Buddhism

1. Practical Reformer:

   • Debates on Worldly Issues: Gautama Buddha focused on practical issues rather than engaging in abstract debates about the soul and Brahma.
   • Emphasis on Worldly Problems: His teachings centered around addressing the challenges and sufferings present in the world.

2. Nature of Existence:

   • Suffering and Desires: Buddha's doctrine asserts that the world is filled with sorrows, and people endure suffering due to their desires.
   • Attainment of Nirvana: Liberation (nirvana) can be achieved by conquering desires, leading to freedom from the cycle of birth and death.

3. Eightfold Path (Ashtang Marg):

   • Path to Eliminate Misery: Introduced the Eightfold Path as a guide to eliminate human suffering.
   • Components of the Path: Right Observation, Right Determination, Right Speech, Right Action, Right Livelihood, Right Exercise, Right Memory, and Right Meditation.

4. Middle Path:

   • Avoiding Extremes: Buddha advocated avoiding extremes, promoting the middle path between excess luxury and excessive austerity.
   • Balanced Living: Encouraged followers to lead a balanced life, neither indulging in excessive pleasures nor subjecting themselves to unnecessary hardships.

5. Code of Conduct:

   • Ethical Guidelines: Laid down a code of conduct for his followers to guide their ethical behavior.
   • Five Precepts: 
     (i) Non-Covetousness: Discouraged coveting others' property.
     (ii) Non-Violence: Emphasized non-violence as a fundamental principle.
     (iii) Truthfulness: Advocated the importance of truthfulness.
     (iv) Abstinence from Intoxicants: Prohibited the consumption of intoxicants.
     (v) No Corrupt Practices: Advised against engaging in corrupt practices.

6. Middle Way and Balanced Living:

   • Avoiding Extremes: Buddha stressed the avoidance of extremes in lifestyle.
   • Balancing Material and Spiritual Aspects: Encouraged followers to find a balance between material pursuits and spiritual well-being.

7. Practical Morality:

   • Application in Daily Life: Buddhism's ethical principles are practical and applicable to daily life.
   • Personal Responsibility: Individuals are responsible for their actions and their consequences.

8. Mindfulness and Meditation:

   • Right Memory and Right Meditation: Included in the Eightfold Path, these components highlight the significance of mindfulness and meditation.
   • Inner Transformation: Emphasized the transformative power of cultivating a focused and disciplined mind.

Special features and reasons for the spread

• Does not recognize the existence of god and soul (atman).
• Appealed to masses because it kept away from philosophical discussions.
• Attacked the varna system and therefore appealed to lower social orders. People were admitted into the sangh without consideration of caste. Women too were allowed.
• Buddhism was liberal and democratic as compared to Brahmanism.
• Made a special appeal to people untouched by vedic religion. People of Magadh accepted readily since they were looked down by orthodox Brahmanas. Magadh was placed outside the holy Aryavrat (land of Aryans - modern UP).
• Personality of Buddha and his approach helped spread Buddhism. He tried to fight hatred by love and evil by goodness.
• Use of Pali, language of common people helped the spread. Sangh was made open to everyone, provided they obeyed the rules of the sangh: continence, poverty and faith among others.
• Three main elements: Buddha, Sangh and Dhamma. Magadh, Kosala, Kausambi and several republican states adopted Buddhism.
• Ashok embraced Buddhism and spread it to Central Asia, West Asia, Sri Lanka. Sent emissaries to several countries.

Causes of Decline

1. Succumbing to Rituals and Ceremonies:

   • Shift in Practices: Buddhism, which initially denounced rituals and ceremonies, witnessed a decline as it gradually adopted ritualistic practices.
   • Deviation from Original Teachings: The departure from the original emphasis on simplicity and direct teachings contributed to a dilution of its core principles.

2. Brahmanism Reforms and Competition:

   • Reform in Brahmanism: Brahmanism underwent reforms in response to the challenge posed by Buddhism, incorporating some of its ideas.
   • Inclusivity: Brahmanism stressed the preservation of cattle wealth and began allowing women and Shudras into its religious fold, attracting followers away from Buddhism.

3. Idol Worship and Materialism:

   • Shift in Buddhist Practices: From the 1st century AD, Buddhists started engaging in idol worship, a departure from the earlier non-theistic nature of the religion.
   • Material Indulgence: Accumulation of gifts, land grants, and revenue from these resources led to a shift from asceticism to indulgence, undermining the austere principles of Buddhism.

4. Monastic Corruption and Vajrayana:

   • Corruption in Monasteries: Monasteries, once centers of spiritual discipline, became associated with corrupt practices, deviating from the original ideals.
   • Shift to Vajrayana Buddhism: The introduction of Vajrayana Buddhism, characterized by luxurious practices, marked a departure from the earlier emphasis on simplicity and austerity.

5. Language Shift:

   • Abandoning Pali for Sanskrit: Monks shifted from using Pali, a language accessible to the masses, to Sanskrit, which was more exclusive and scholarly.
   • Disconnect with the Masses: The language shift contributed to a growing disconnect between the monks and the common people.

6. Moral Degeneration and Violation of Principles:

   • Incontinence in Monasteries: The cohabitation of monks and women in monasteries led to moral degeneration and violated the key principle of incontinence.
   • Departure from Ethical Standards: The decline in ethical standards within monastic communities undermined the moral authority of Buddhism.

7. Attracting Turkish Invaders:

   • Wealth as a Target: The accumulation of riches in Buddhist monasteries made them attractive targets for Turkish invaders.
   • Looting and Violence: Turkish invaders, attracted by the wealth, looted monasteries and perpetrated violence, particularly exemplified by the sacking of Nalanda in Bihar.

8. Dispersal and Disappearance:

   • Flight to Nepal and Tibet: Faced with invasions, some Buddhist monks fled to Nepal and Tibet for safety.
   • Disappearance from India: By the 12th century AD, Buddhism had disappeared from the land of its birth due to a combination of internal changes and external threats.

[Intext Question]

Mahayana and Hinayana

1. Foreign influence in the post-Maurya period (-200 BC till 2nd century AD) changed Indian religions, especially Buddhism.
2. Originally it was too abstract and puritanical.
3. Worshippers wanted something tangible and concrete instead of the philosophical doctrines of Buddhism.
4. Mahayana (Great Wheel) came into existence, where images of Buddha were worshipped.
5. Those who did not subscribe to this school became Hinayana (Small Wheel). Kanishk became a great patron of Mahayan.
6. Spread to Burma in early Christian centuries led to development of Theravada Buddhism.
7. Erected many temples and statues and produced a rich corpus of literature.
8. All Pali texts were compiled and commented upon in SL.

Influence

1. Rise of agricultural economy and trade led to economic inequalities. So Buddhism asked followers not to accumulate wealth. Poverty breeds hatred, cruelty and violence. So farmers should be provided with grain, labourers with wages and traders with wealth.
2. Code of conduct prescribed for monks was a reaction against the material culture of 6th and 5th centuries. Partially reflects a revolt against money, private property and luxurious living.
3. Also consolidated the socio-economic status of the people: debtors and slaves were not allowed in the sangh (thus protecting the creditors and slave-owners resp.)
4. Quite similar to Brahmanism in that the monks did not participate in actual production but lived off others, both emphasized carrying out family obligations, protecting private property and respecting political authority. Both supported social order based on classes.
5. Buddhism preserved cattle wealth by emphasizing on non-violence. Buddhists monks were allowed to eat meat provided that it was alms and had not been specially prepared for them. No animals should be killed specially for consumption of a Buddhist.
6. Buddhism created a new awareness in intellect and culture. Asked people to question and judge things on merit. Promoted logic and rationalism.
7. Enormously enriched Pali literature. Early Pali literature. Contains 3 categories:
   (i) Sayings and teachings of Buddha.
   (ii) Rules to be observed by members of Sangh and
   (iii) Philosophical exposition of Dhamma.
8. Buddhist literary activites continued in middle ages and contributed to famous Apbhramsh writings in East India. Monasteries were world-renowned centres of learning: Nalanda (Bihar), Vikramshila ( Bihar),Vallabhi (Gujarat).
9. First ancient statues worshipped in India were those of Buddha. Panels at Gaya (Bihar), Sanchi and Bharhut (MP) show artistic activity. Gandhara Art (Indo-Greek) flourished in NW India with Buddhist statues. Rock-cut caves were made in Barabar Hills (Gaya, Bihar) and in Nasik (Maharashtra) for monks to live. Buddhist art flourished in Kushan delta under Roman trade impetus.
10. Important centres elsewhere were n Afghanistan and Central Asia.
    Begram is famous for ivory work and Bamiyan Buddha rock-cut statues are legendary. There are thousands of viharas in Bamiyan.
11. Prakrit in Kharosthi script spread to central asia via Buddhism. Relics of stupas and inscriptions have been found there. Buddhism was a major religion until it was supplanted by Islam in 7^th century.