Old NCERT Summary (Satish Chandra): Economic and Social Life | History for UPSC CSE PDF Download

1. Trade and Commerce
Period of stagnation and decline earlier.
Trade decline = decline of towns and cities.
(i) Disintegration of roman empire and of the old Sassanid empire after rise of Islam and disruption of overland trade.
(ii) China became the focus of trade after decline of roman empire. Spices from SE asia, ivory from Africa, glassware from west asia, medicinal herbs, lac, incense etc. Were traded.
(iii) Due to India's monsoon climate, ships had to wait for long periods to travel directly from Africa to China.
(iv) So, India, and chiefly Malabar port - became an important staging centre for goods from Africa, China and SE Asia. Famous Chinese port = Canton (Kanfu).
(v) Due to less population of north India, there was a gradual decline of internal trade too and led to languishing of trade guilds (shrenis and sanghas). Guilds = people belonging to different castes, having own rules of conduct which they were legally bound to obey, entitled to lend or borrow money or receive endowments. After some time, some older shrenis emerged as sub-castes (eg. Dvadasa-shreni).

Revival:
(i) with emergence of Arab empire in West Asia and north Africa.
(ii) Demand for spices led to revival of trade with India and Southeast Asia (spice islands) from middle of 10th century onwards. Malwa and Gujarat benefited the most.
(iii) Also believed that material prosperity of SE asia was based on introduction of irrigated rice-cultivation from India.
(iv) Jainism also received a setback due to declining trade.
(v) Dharmashastras placed a ban on crossing certain areas or going abroad. Although several traders continued to go to different countries for business purposes, these bans were meant to dissuade people from going to areas dominated by Islam in the west or Buddhism in the east and bringing back heretical ideas which were unsuited to brahmanical way of life.
(vi) Peculiar features of language and dresses of SE Asia mentioned in Brihatkatha-kosh by Harisena.
(vii) Indian merchants were organized into guilds (Manigraman and Nandesi guilds).
(viii) Japanese records give credit of introducing cotton in Japan to two Indians.
(ix) Eventually by 13th century, Chinese govt. Tried to restrict the export of gold and silver and stem their negative balance of trade with other countries.
(x) While India's trade with the western parts declined, trade with South east asia and China grew steadily. This led to increasing prosperity of Bengal and Gujarat.

2. Growth of Feudalism
(i) Rise of samantas, ranak, rautta (rajput) etc.
(a) They were govt servants paid by providing revenue-bearing villages, defeated rajas, local hereditary chiefs, tribal leaders.
(b) So, large tracts of land within a kingdom consisted of old rulers who looked to reassert their independence.
(c) These rulers took to administering justice and subletting land to people below them without informing the king, resulting in feudal society.

(ii) Pros -
(a) Provided security to peasants in a conflict-prone society.
(b) Feudal chiefs saw and as their own and some consequently took efforts to extent cultivation and irrigation.

(iii) Cons -
(a) Weakened royal authority. Large feudal armies could turn against the king at any time.
(b) Small states discouraged trade and promoted local village economy.
(c) Feudal domination also weaked local government.

3. Condition of the people
(i) No decline in handicrafts and agriculture and metallurgy.
(ii) Feudal chiefs assumed large titles like mahasamantadhipati.
(iii) Big merchants also aped feudal chiefs and kings in splendour. Millionaire = kotisvara.
(iv) There were many poor people, however. Many poor resorted to robbery and plunder.
(v) Revenue from peasants = l/6th of produce; but there were many other additional taxes and cesses.
(vi) They also had to undergo forced labour = vishti.
(vii) Crops, granaries and homes were frequent in times of war and increased the burden on the common man.

4. Caste system
(i) Caste System was the basis of society. Disabilities suffered by lower castes increased.
(a) Inter-caste marriages were frowned upon.
(b) Almost all professions were now labelled as castes (jati).
(c) Handicrafts were considered low occupations and these people were treated as untouchables along with tribals.
(ii) Rajputs emerged as a new caste. Traced their origin to solar and lunar dynasties of Mahabharats but are believed to be descendants of Scythians and Hunas.
(iii) Over time, all ruling classes not affiliated to any caste were termed Rajput and made Kshatriyas.
(iv) Castes were not rigid, they could rise or fall in their varna. Earlier, people from various castes working in palaces = kayasth. Later, they were recognized as a single caste.
(v) Several tribes, Jain and Buddhist followers were hinduized and religion and society became more complex.

5.Women:
(i) Considered mentally inferior.
(ii) Meant to obey husbands blindly. Matsya Purana authorizes husband to beat wife.
(iii) Were not allowed to study Vedas. Marriageable age reduced to between 6 and 12-13, destroying scope for education.
(iv) Remarriage was allowed, but rarely. Distrusted in general and kept in seclusion.
(v) Women, including widows, were given wider property rights. Growth of feudal society strengthened the concept of private property.
(vi) Sati was practiced in some places.

6. Education and Science
(i) Mass education did not exist. People learnt what was necessary.
(ii) Reading and writing was confined to upper classes. Temples made arrangements for higher level education.
(iii) Main responsibility to provide education = respective guilds or families. Branches of Vedas and grammar were studied.
(iv) More formal education with emphasis on secular subjects provided in Buddhist monasteries. Nalanda, Vikramshila and Uddandapura in Bihar were famous.
(v) Kashmir was another important centre. Shaiva sects flourished there.
(vi) Matths (Madurai and Sringeri) were set up in South India.
(vii) Science declined. Surgery did not advance because dissection was considered the job for lower varnas.
(viii) Lilawati of Bhaskar II was a standard text for Maths.
(ix) Medicine advanced a little but no method for breeding fine horses was found, leaving India dependent on central asia.
(x) Reasons for decline in science: Society stagnated, narrower world view, increasing orthodoxy, setback to urban life, insular nature of Indians.
(xi) Al-biruni describes Brahmins of that time as haughty, conceited, foolish and vain.

6.Food:
(i) Vegetarianism was mainly practiced but meat-eating was lawful on certain occasions.
(ii) Wine was drunk on ceremonial occasions, even by women.
(iii) Fairs, festivals, excursions were common amongst common people.
(iv) Kings and princes indulged in dicing, hunting and royal polo.

7. Religious movements
(i) Revival and expansion of Hinduism and continued decline of Jainism and Buddhism.
(ii) Shiv and Vishnu became popular and others became subordinate.
(iii) Religion played a positive role in the age of disintegration. Outbreaks of violence and forcible occupation at Buddhist and Jain temples.
(iv) Buddhism confined to eastern India. Mahayan school rose and adopted elaborate rituals and mantras etc., making it indistinguishable from Hinduism.
(v) Jainism was popular. Most magnificent temples built during 9th and 10th centuries. High watermark for Jainism in south india. Later, growing rigidity and loss of royal patronage led to decline. Dilwara temple @Mt Abu, Jainalayas as resting places for travellers, basadis (temples) and mahastambhs.
(vi) Revival also increased power and arrogance of brahmanas, resulting in popular vedic worship movements such as: Gorakhnath - Nathpanthis - Tantra and tantrism -open to all, many followers of lower castes. - in north India
(vii) Bhakti movements in south India - Nayanars and Alvars.
(viii) Lingayat or Vir Shaiva movement (12th cent) - Basava and Channabasava who lived in court of Kalachuri kings of K'taka - reformist, opposed castes and child marriage and fasts and sacrifices etc, allowed widow remarriage.
(ix) Intellectual movements against Jainism and Buddhism also emerged, such as:
(x) Sankara(9th cent) - Vedanta philosophy (advaitavad/non-dualism)

1. A Hindu revivalist movement giving a new placement to Hinduism was started by Sankara.
2. Kaladi in Kerala is his birthplace.
3. His doctrine of Monoism or Advaita was too abstract to appeal to the common people.
4. The Advaita Concept of Nirgunabrahman (God without attributes) received contradictory reaction with the emergence of the idea of Sagunabrahman (God with attributes).

(xi) Ramanuj (11th cent) - bhakti + Vedanta - qualified dualism

1. He was born at Sriperumbudur near modern Chennai.
2. He preached Visishtadvaita in thel2th century.
3. According to him, God is Sagunabrahman.
4. He encouraged Prabattimarga or path of self-surrender to God.
5. He invited the downtrodden to Vaishnavism.

(xii) Madhvacharya (Dualism/Tattvavaad)

1. Madhava is from Kannada region whose preaching prevailed in the 13th
2. He spread Deviator dualism of Jivatma and Paramatma.
3. His philosophy was that the world is not an illusion but a reality. God, soul, matter is unique in nature.

(xiii) Ramananda, Nimbarka Vallabhacharya were also other preachers of Vaishnavite Bhakti in the Telangana region
(xiv) Bhakti became acceptable to all sections by early 16th century