Old NCERT Summary (Satish Chandra): India & the World | History for UPSC CSE PDF Download

Introduction

Between the eighth and eighteenth centuries, significant transformations occurred in both India and the broader global context. Europe and Asia witnessed the emergence of novel social and political structures, influencing the perspectives and lifestyles of their respective populations. These developments also left a lasting imprint on India due to its extensive trade and cultural ties with regions surrounding the Mediterranean Sea, including interactions with influential empires like the Romans and Persians.

Europe

I. Feudal System in Europe

Dominance of Chiefs and the King:

• The most powerful figures in medieval Europe were the chiefs, who controlled vast swathes of land through military might and played crucial roles in governance.
• The king, in essence, acted as the foremost feudal chief, exerting control over subordinate chiefs by compelling them to pledge loyalty as vassals.
• Tensions frequently arose between the king and his vassals, leading to struggles for power within the feudal hierarchy.

Key Features of Feudalism:

• Landed aristocracy held significant influence, with power often inherited within noble families.
• Serfdom and the Manor system were integral components, where peasants (serfs) were obliged to work the land and provide a portion of their produce to the landlord.
• Military organization was structured around feudal obligations, with lords responsible for raising and maintaining armed forces.

II. Serfdom and Manor System

Definition of Serfs and Manor:

• Serfs were peasants bound to the land, compelled to toil on the estates of landlords.
• The Manor served as the residence of the landlord, around which the agricultural lands were cultivated by serfs.
• Landlords held authority over the manor, administering justice and enforcing law and order.

III. Evolution of Warfare and Military Organization

Impact of Cavalry and Technological Advancements:

• The popularity of cavalry in warfare surged with the introduction of innovations like the iron stirrup and improved harnessing techniques.
• These advancements, originating from East Asia, spread to Europe and were later introduced in India during the 10th century.

Decentralization of Military Power:

• As armies grew in size, kings found it increasingly challenging to manage them centrally.
• Consequently, military responsibilities were decentralized, with feudal lords assuming command over their own armed forces.
• In many cases, lords collected taxes from the peasantry, remitted tributes to the king, maintained armies, and utilized the remaining resources for personal consumption.

IV. Feudalism in India

Local Fiefs (Samantas):

• Similar power structures existed in India, where local fiefs wielded authority over their territories, with the peasantry dependent upon them for livelihood and protection.

V. Role of the Catholic Church in Europe

Political and Moral Authority:

• The Catholic Church played pivotal roles in shaping both political structures and cultural life in medieval Europe.
• Through its moral authority, the Church influenced societal norms and values, guiding the conduct of rulers and subjects alike.

Social Welfare and Educational Institutions:

• Monastic orders and denominations established by the Church provided essential services, including healthcare, shelter for travelers, and education.
• Revenue derived from tax-free land grants by feudal lords and kings sustained these institutions, which served as vital centers for community support and learning.

The Arab World

I. Rise of Islam and Early Conquests

• Founder of Islam, grew up in the deserts of Arabia.
• First converts were Arabs.
• Arab conquests reached Sind and Multan by 712 A.D.

II. Abbasid Empire and Its Influence

Abbasids in Baghdad:

• Abbasids rose to power as Caliphs in Baghdad in the 8th century, claiming lineage from Prophet Muhammad.
• Controlled territories across North Africa, Egypt, Syria, Iran, and Iraq, as well as vital trade routes connecting India, China, and the Mediterranean.
• Prosperity stemmed from trade taxes and entrepreneurial Arab merchants.

Assimilation of Knowledge:

• Arab Empire absorbed scientific and administrative knowledge from conquered empires.
• Transmitted Chinese inventions like the compass, paper, printing, and gunpowder to Europe.

House of Wisdom (Bait-ul-hikmat):

• Established in Baghdad, translated works from various civilizations into Arabic, fostering intellectual exchange and advancement.

III. Arab Invasion in India: Muhammad bin Qasim

Conquest of Sind:

• Muhammad bin Qasim, dispatched by the Governor of Iraq, conquered Sind with the permission of the Caliph.
• Battle of Rewar resulted in victory over Dahir, ruler of Sind, capturing Sind and Multan.

Administrative System:

• Introduced Iqtas or districts, with Arab military officers overseeing administration, while local Hindu officers managed sub-divisions.
• Non-Muslims subjected to Jizya tax.

Military Strength:

• Muhammad bin Qasim's army consisted of 25,000 troops with advanced weaponry and cavalry.

IV. Legacy and Impact

• Arab conquest paved the way for Islam's penetration into India.

Cultural Exchange:

• Arabs learned administration, astronomy, medicine, and architecture from India.
• Transmission of Indian philosophy, numerals, and astronomy to Europe.

Indian Influence:

• Indian texts translated into Arabic, Indian physicians appointed in Arab hospitals, contributing to medical advancements.
• Stagnation in Europe and decline in Arab science after the 14th century due to growing orthodoxy and political changes.

East and South East Asia