Old NCERT Summary (Satish Chandra): The Delhi Sultanate-1 | History for UPSC CSE PDF Download

Introduction

The period from 1206 A.D. to 1526 A.D. came to be known as the Delhi Sultanate period. This period witnessed many dynasties and various rulers.
Some of the major dynasties and rulers this period witnessed are listed below

 The Mameluk Sultans (Thirteenth Century)

  Initial Struggles: For nearly a hundred years after the initial conquests, the Delhi sultanate faced numerous challenges, including:

• Foreign invasions
• Internal conflicts among Turkish leaders
• Attempts by dispossessed and subordinate Rajput rulers and chiefs to regain their independence and oust the Turks

Overcoming Difficulties: The Turkish rulers managed to overcome these challenges. By the end of the thirteenth century, they were able to:

• Extend their rule over Malwa and Gujarat
• Penetrate into the Deccan and south India

Far-reaching Changes: The establishment of Turkish rule in northern India began to have widespread effects all over India within a hundred years, leading to significant changes in Society, Administration, Cultural life

Qutbuddin Aibak's Rule: Aibak, a Turkish slave of Muizzuddin, succeeded him in 1206 and played a crucial role in expanding the Turkish Sultanate in India after the Battle of Tarain.

Yalduz's Claim: Another slave of Muizzuddin, Yalduz, took over Ghazni and claimed to rule over Delhi as well.

Aibak's Assertion: Aibak, ruling from Lahore, did not accept Yalduz's claim over Delhi.

Severing Links with Ghazni: This marked the severance of the Sultanate's links with Ghazni, which had several benefits:

• It prevented India from being drawn into Central Asian politics.
• It allowed the Delhi Sultanate to develop independently without relying on external countries.

Iltutmish (1210–1236)

Background: In 1210, Aibak, the ruler of the Turkish conquests in north India, died after falling from his horse while playing polo. He was succeeded by his son-in-law, Iltutmish. However, before Iltutmish could take over, he had to defeat Aibak's son, challenging the idea of hereditary succession. 

Role of Iltutmish in Consolidation: Iltutmish is considered the true consolidator of the Turkish conquests in north India. When he came to power he had to face numerous challenges :

• Bengal and Bihar: Ali Mardan Khan had declared himself king.
• Multan and Punjab: Qubacha, a former slave of Aibak, declared independence and seized Lahore and parts of the Punjab.
• Rajput Resistance: Rajput regions like Kalinjar, Gwaliyar, and eastern Rajasthan (including Ajmer and Bayana) rejected Turkish rule.

Early Challenges: Iltutmish initially focused on the northwest, facing threats from the Khwarizmi empire, which had extended its frontier to the Indus River. To counter this threat, Iltutmish occupied Lahore. In 1218, the Khwarizmi empire was destroyed by the Mongols, who established a vast empire stretching from China to the Mediterranean, impacting the Delhi Sultanate. During this period, Iltutmish took advantage of the Mongol distraction to oust Qubacha from Multan and Uchch, restoring the Delhi Sultanate's borders up to the Indus River.

Consolidation and Campaigns: With the west secure, Iltutmish turned his attention to other regions:

• Bengal and Bihar: Iwaz, claiming the title of Sultan Ghiyasuddin, had established independence. He was a capable ruler known for public works but conducted raids on neighboring territories.
• Conquest of Bengal and Bihar: In 1226–27, Iltutmish's forces defeated Iwaz near Lakhnauti, re-establishing Delhi's suzerainty over Bengal and Bihar. Despite this, these regions continued to challenge Delhi's authority.

Around the same time, Iltutmish made efforts to reclaim Gwaliyar and Bayana. He maintained control over Ajmer and Nagor and launched expeditions against Ranthambhor and Jalor to reestablish his authority. Iltutmish also attacked Nagda, the capital of Mewar, located about 22 km from Udaipur. However, he was forced to retreat when the armies of Gujarat arrived to assist the Rana.In retaliation, Iltutmish sent an expedition against the Chalukyas of Gujarat, but this campaign was met with failure and losses.

Raziya  (1236-1239)

Background: Iltutmish, in his last year, was troubled by the issue of succession. He did not find any of his sons suitable for the throne and decided to nominate his daughter, Raziya, a rare choice for the time.

Raziya’s Ascendancy: Iltutmish managed to convince the nobles and religious leaders to support Raziya’s nomination. Although women had ruled in places like ancient Iran and Egypt, having a woman rule in India was unprecedented. Raziya faced opposition from her brothers and powerful Turkish nobles, but she asserted her authority.

Struggle for Power: Raziya’s reign marked the beginning of a power struggle between the monarchy and the Turkish chiefs, known as ‘the forty’ or the chahalgani. These chiefs, who had been respected by Iltutmish, wanted to install a puppet ruler after his death. However, Raziya proved to be strong-willed and unwilling to be controlled.

Raziya’s Reign: Raziya broke traditional gender norms by dressing like a man, holding court with her face unveiled, hunting, and leading her army in battle. She faced opposition from Iltutmish’s former minister, Nizam-ul-Mulk Junaidi, who had initially opposed her and supported a rebellion against her. Raziya successfully sent expeditions to places like Ranthambhor to establish law and order.

Challenges and Downfall: Raziya attempted to create a loyal group of nobles and promote a non-Turkish noble to a high position, which led to further opposition. Turkish nobles accused her of improper conduct and of being too close to Yaqut Khan, an Abyssinian noble she had appointed. Rebellions erupted in Lahore and Sirhind, and Raziya personally led forces to suppress these uprisings. However, she faced internal rebellion, leading to her imprisonment and eventual death.

Era of Balban (1246–87)

Balban: Rise to Power

•  Balban was a Turkish leader who gradually took all the power for himself and became king in 1265. 
•  Initially, he was the deputy to Nasiruddin Mahmud, a young sultan whom Balban had helped become king in 1246. 
•  To strengthen his position, Balban married his daughter to the young sultan. 

Balban’s Struggle for Power

•  Balban’s growing power made many Turkish chiefs angry because they expected to have influence over the government since Nasiruddin Mahmud was young and inexperienced. 
•  In 1253, these chiefs conspired and ousted Balban, replacing him with Imaduddin Raihan, an Indian Muslim. 
•  Balban agreed to step down but continued to build his own support group. 

Regaining Power

•  Within a year and a half, Balban regained support and prepared for a military confrontation. 
•  He made contacts with the Mongols, who had taken over parts of Punjab. 
•  Sultan Mahmud eventually recognized Balban’s strength and dismissed Raihan, who was later defeated and killed. 
•  Balban eliminated many rivals through various means and began to assume royal symbols, although he did not take the throne immediately. 

Ascension to the Throne

•  After Sultan Mahmud died in 1265, some historians believe Balban poisoned him and killed his sons to clear his path to the throne. 
•  Despite his harsh methods, Balban’s rule marked the beginning of a strong, centralized government. 

Strengthening of Monarchy

•  Balban aimed to enhance the prestige and power of the monarchy to address internal and external threats. 
•  To strengthen his position, he claimed descent from the legendary Iranian king Afrasiyab. 
•  Balban championed the Turkish nobility by excluding Indian Muslims from important government posts and refusing to entertain low-born individuals, even in trivial matters. 

Authoritarian Rule

•  Balban was unwilling to share power with anyone, including his own family. 
•  His authoritarian nature made him intolerant of any criticism, even from his supporters. 
•  He was determined to weaken the influence of the chahalgani, the Turkish nobles, and elevate the power and prestige of the monarchy. 
•  Balban was ruthless in his pursuit of this goal, going so far as to poison his cousin, Sher Khan. 

Justice and Military Reforms

•  To gain public trust, Balban administered justice impartially, punishing even the highest officials for their transgressions. 
•  He kept himself informed by appointing spies in every department and organized a strong centralized army to address internal disturbances and repel the Mongol threat in Punjab. 
•  Balban restructured the military department, retiring soldiers and troopers unfit for service, which faced resistance from the Turkish troopers. 

Deteriorating Law and Order

• The law and order situation around Delhi and in the Ganga-Jamuna Doab had worsened significantly.
•  Areas like Awadh were plagued by robbers and dacoits, making communication with eastern regions difficult. 
• Rajput zamindars had established forts and openly defied the government. 
• Near Delhi, the Mewatis became increasingly bold, plundering up to the city outskirts. 
• Balban responded to these challenges with a policy of "blood and iron."

Harsh Measures and Military Presence

• Balban ordered the ruthless hunting and killing of the Meos, cleared forests around Delhi, and established numerous military outposts (thanas).
•  In the Ganga-Jamuna Doab and Katehar (modern Rohilkhand), he directed the clearing of forests, destruction of rebellious villages, and enslavement of their inhabitants. 
• Afghan soldier colonies were settled in these areas to secure roads and manage disturbances from Rajput zamindars.

Strengthening Authority

Through these stringent measures, Balban was able to regain control over the region. To showcase the strength of his government and instill fear, he maintained a grand court and displayed his authority whenever he ventured out.

Balban's Rule (1266-1286)

• Balban ruled as the Sultan of Delhi from 1266 to 1286.
• He was a strong monarch who set strict rules to prevent any challenges to his authority.
• To show his strength, he had a large group of bodyguards with swords.
• Balban avoided laughing, joking, and even drinking wine in court to maintain a serious image.
• He insisted on certain Iranian ceremonies, like sijada and paibos, which involved prostrating and kissing the monarch's feet, to emphasize his superiority over the nobles.
• Although these ceremonies were considered un-Islamic, they were accepted because Balban and the Delhi Sultanate were seen as defenders of Islam during a time when many Muslim states were falling to the Mongols.
• Balban did not lead distant military campaigns, except for one in Bengal, due to the threat of Mongol attacks on Delhi.
• Instead, he kept his army active through elaborate hunting expeditions.

Balban's Legacy

• Balban died in 1286 and is recognized as a key figure in shaping the Delhi Sultanate, especially its government and institutions.
• He strengthened the Sultanate by asserting royal power, but he could not completely protect northern India from Mongol invasions.
• His policy of excluding non-Turks from positions of power and relying on a narrow group created dissatisfaction, leading to unrest after his death.

 The Mongols and The  Problem of the Northwest Frontier

India's Natural Defenses

• India has been protected from external invasions for most of its history due to its natural boundaries.
• The only vulnerable area was the northwest, where invaders could enter through mountain passes.

Historical Invasions

• Invaders like the Turks, Huns, and Scythians used the northwest mountain passes to penetrate into India and establish empires.
• To prevent invasions into the fertile valleys of Punjab and Sind, it was crucial to control the area from Kabul to Ghazni and Qandahar.

Control of Strategic Areas

• The area flanked by the Hindukush mountains was vital for controlling the main route for reinforcements from Central Asia.
• The Delhi Sultanate could not attain these frontiers due to the unstable situation in West Asia, leaving India vulnerable.

Rise of the Khwarizmi Empire

• The Ghurids lost control of Kabul, Qandahar, and Ghazni to the Khwarizmi empire, which extended its boundary to the Indus River.
• A struggle for north India seemed imminent between the Khwarizmi rulers and the successor of Qutbuddin Aibak.

Mongol Invasion

• Changez Khan, the Mongol leader, invaded the Khwarizmi empire in 1218, causing widespread destruction.
• The Mongols sacked cities and ravaged the countryside, using terror as a weapon of war.

Mongol Tactics

• The Mongols slaughtered soldiers and leaders of resisting cities, selling women and children into slavery.
• Civilians were also targeted, with able-bodied men drafted into labor levies for use against other towns.

Aftermath of Mongol Invasion

• The invasion led to a severe setback in the economy and cultural life of the affected areas.
• However, the Mongols eventually established peace and order, safeguarding trade routes and initiating a slow recovery process.
• It took several generations for Iran, Turan, and Iraq to regain their previous prosperity.

Impact on the Delhi Sultanate

• The Mongol onslaught had significant repercussions for the Sultanate of Delhi.
• Many princes, scholars, and leading families fled to Delhi, which became the last remaining Muslim state in the region.
• Delhi emerged as the center of Islam, with an emphasis on Islamic unity among different sections of the new rulers.

Adaptation of Turkish Invaders

• The Turkish invaders, cut off from their homelands and reinforcements, were forced to adapt quickly to the Indian situation.

Mongol Threat to India

The Mongol threat to India began in 1221, following the defeat of the Khwarizmi ruler. The crown prince, Jalaluddin, fled and was pursued by Genghis Khan. Jalaluddin fought valiantly on the banks of the Indus River, but after being defeated, he crossed into India. Genghis Khan loitered near the Indus for three months but ultimately decided not to invade India, focusing instead on conquering the remaining parts of the Khwarizmi empire.

If Genghis Khan had invaded India, it could have faced severe devastation, as the Turkish state in India was weak and disorganized at the time. Iltutmish, the ruler of Delhi, tried to appease the Mongols by denying Jalaluddin asylum. Jalaluddin settled in the area between Lahore and the Sutlej River, leading to a series of Mongol attacks and changing India’s western boundary.

Iltutmish and the Mongol Threat

• Lahore and Multan. These cities were contested between Iltutmish and his rivals, Yalduz and Qubacha. After a fierce struggle, Iltutmish conquered both cities, establishing a strong defense line against the Mongols.

• Post-Genghis Khan Era. After Genghis Khan's death in 1227, the Mongol empire was divided among his sons. During this time, the Mongols, led by Batu Khan, focused on Russia, delaying their incursions into India.

• Mongol Preoccupation. The Mongols were occupied with Iraq and Syria until 1240, allowing the Sultans of Delhi to strengthen their centralized state and army.

• Mongol Attacks in the 1240s. In 1241, Tair Bahadur, a Mongol commander, attacked Lahore, leading to its sacking and depopulation. Subsequent attacks in 1245 threatened Multan and Lahore, with Balban playing a crucial role in defending these areas.

• Balban’s Struggles. During a period of internal strife, Balban faced challenges from rivals and the Mongols, who managed to capture and hold Lahore with the help of some Turkish nobles.
  
  (i) Balban's Strategy: A Mix of Force and Diplomacy
  Balban faced the challenge of Mongol pressure on Delhi's frontiers, which had retreated to the Beas River.
  He adopted a strategy that combined military strength and diplomatic efforts.
  Balban repaired forts along the Beas River and stationed strong forces to prevent Mongol crossings.
  He remained in Delhi for vigilance, avoiding distant expeditions.
  
  (ii) Diplomatic Engagement with the Mongols
  Balban sent diplomatic messages to Halaku, the Mongol Il-Khan of Iran.
  He received envoys from Halaku with respect and tacitly agreed to leave most of Punjab under Mongol control.
  In return, the Mongols did not attack Delhi, although the frontier remained undefined.
  
  (iii) Ongoing Conflicts and Territorial Gains
  Balban had to conduct near-annual expeditions against the Mongols to keep them in check.
  He successfully regained Multan, which was placed under the charge of his eldest son, Prince Mahmud.
  Prince Mahmud was killed in an encounter while trying to secure the Multan-Beas line.
  
  (iv) Balban's Legacy and Mongol Invasions
  Balban died in 1286, but his strategic and diplomatic arrangements benefited the Delhi Sultanate.
  In 1292, Mongol Abdullah attacked Delhi but was defeated by Jalaluddin Khalji near Balban’s frontier line.
  The Mongols, demoralized, sought a truce, and some converted Mongols settled near Delhi.
  
  (v) Change in Central Asian Politics and Mongol Invasions
  The Mongol II-Khan of Iran had maintained friendly relations with the Delhi sultans.
  The Chaghatai Mongols of Trans-Oxiana, led by Dawa Khan, attempted to conquer India due to their rivalry with the Il-Khan.
  Dawa Khan launched campaigns against Delhi, culminating in a major invasion in 1299.
  
  (vi) Alauddin Khalji's Defense Against the Mongols
  The Mongols cut off communications and entered Delhi streets, marking a serious attempt to conquer the city.
  Alauddin Khalji decided to confront the Mongols outside Delhi, achieving some successes despite losses.
  In 1303, the Mongols returned with a large force, but Alauddin Khalji fortified himself and faced them.
  After two months of skirmishes, the Mongols retreated without achieving their goals.

Mongol Invasions of Delhi

• The Mongol invasions of Delhi were significant events that demonstrated the strength and resilience of the sultans of Delhi against a formidable enemy.
• Despite the initial threat posed by the Mongols, the sultans were able to defend their territory, showcasing their military capabilities.

Alauddin Khalji's Response

• In response to the Mongol invasions, Alauddin Khalji took decisive measures to strengthen his army and fortifications.
• He raised a large and efficient military force and repaired fortresses near the Beas River, which proved crucial in repelling future Mongol attacks.

Mongol Threat and Internal Struggles

• The death of Dawa Khan, the Mongol ruler of Trans-Oxiana, in 1306 led to confusion and civil war among the Mongols.
• This internal strife reduced the Mongol threat to India for a period.

Recovery and Expansion

• Taking advantage of the disarray among the Mongols, the rulers of Delhi were able to recover Lahore and eventually extend their control up to the Indus River.
• This period marked a recovery and expansion of Delhi’s territory, previously threatened by the Mongols.

Impact on the Sultanate

• Throughout the thirteenth century, the Sultanate of Delhi faced a serious threat from the northwest due to the Mongols.
• The Mongols managed to gain control over much of Punjab and Kashmir, posing a significant threat to Delhi.
• However, through strong leadership and diplomatic efforts, the Turkish rulers of Delhi were able to avert this threat and eventually recover lost territories.
• The persistent threat from the Mongols had a profound impact on the internal dynamics and problems within the Sultanate of Delhi.

Internal Rebellions and the Struggle for Territorial Consolidation of the Delhi Sultanate

Internal Rebellions Faced by Delhi Sultans

• During the rule of the Ilbari Turks in India, the Sultans of Delhi faced numerous challenges, including internal dissensions, foreign invasions, and internal rebellions.
• These rebellions were led by various groups with different objectives:
• Muslim Chiefs: Some ambitious Muslim chiefs sought to establish their independence from the Sultanate.
• Rajput Rajas and Zamindars: Rajput rajas and zamindars aimed to expel the Turkish invaders from their territories or exploit the Turkish rulers' difficulties to expand their own power.

Nature of Internal Rebellions

• The internal rebellions had diverse objectives and nature, and it is inaccurate to categorize them collectively as "Hindu resistance." India’s vast geography made it challenging to govern from a single center, necessitating a degree of autonomy for provincial governors.
• This autonomy, coupled with strong local sentiments, encouraged provincial governors to reject Delhi's control and declare independence. Over time, regional sentiments had strengthened, enabling local rulers to rally opposition against Delhi's rule.

The Eastern Region: Bengal and Bihar

• The eastern region, particularly Bengal and Bihar, persistently resisted Delhi's authority. Khalji chief Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khalji had expelled the Sena king, Lakshmana Sena, from Lakhnauti.
• After some initial confusion, a figure named Iwaz, who assumed the title Ghiyasuddin Sultan, started ruling independently in Bengal.
• Iwaz took advantage of Iltutmish’s preoccupations in the northwest to extend his authority over Bihar and collect tribute from various regions, including Jajnagar (Orissa), Tirhut (north Bengal), Bang (east Bengal), and Kamrup (Assam).

Iltutmish's Campaign Against Iwaz

• In 1225, Iltutmish marched against Iwaz, who initially submitted but later asserted his independence once Iltutmish had departed.
• Iltutmish's son, the governor of Bengal, continued to face resistance from Iwaz, who managed to establish a stronghold in Bengal and continued to resist Delhi’s authority.

Consolidation of Power in the Ganga Valley

• Iltutmish focused on consolidating his power in the Ganga valley and expanding the Sultanate’s authority in the region.
• Barani records indicate that Iltutmish was able to secure various iqtas (administrative divisions) in modern western Uttar Pradesh, including Baran, Amroha, Sambhal, and Katehar, which were permanently freed from trouble.

Southern and Western Frontier Challenges

• The southern and western frontier of the Delhi Sultanate under Iltutmish was also unstable.
• Initially, under Aibak, the Turks had captured several forts and overrun parts of eastern Rajasthan, extending their control over regions that had previously belonged to the Chauhan empire.
• However, in the subsequent period, the Turks struggled to defend their gains in eastern Rajasthan and maintain their hold on the redoubts protecting Delhi and the Gangetic region.
• Aibak’s operations against the Chauhan empire had laid the groundwork for Turkish control, but the inability to advance into Malwa and Gujarat and the difficulty in defending existing territories highlighted the challenges faced by the Delhi Sultanate in consolidating its power.

Iltutmish and the Rajputs

• Iltutmish was busy in the northwest, allowing the Rajput rajas to regain control of Kalinjar, Gwaliyar, and Bayana. Other principalities like Ranthambhor and Jalor also rejected Turkish rule.
• From 1226, Iltutmish started to regain control over these areas, beginning with Ranthambhor, which he forced to accept Turkish suzerainty.
• He captured Jalor, a strategic location on the way to Gujarat.
• However, his attempts to extend control over Gujarat and Malwa were unsuccessful.

Challenges in Gujarat and Malwa

• The Chalukyas of Gujarat repelled Iltutmish's attacks, and the Paramaras of Malwa proved too strong for the Turks.
• Iltutmish did manage to raid Malwa, plundering Ujjain and Raisina, with one of his generals also raiding Bundi.
• In the east, Iltutmish recovered Bayana and Gwaliyar but struggled against the Rajputs of Baghelkhand.

After Iltutmish

• After Iltutmish's death, Turkish control over eastern Rajputana weakened. Many Rajput rulers reclaimed their independence, and the fort of Gwaliyar was retaken.
• The Bhatti Rajputs from Mewat isolated Bayana and extended their raids to the outskirts of Delhi.

Balban's Efforts

• Balban attempted to conquer Ranthambhor and recover Gwaliyar but faced failures.
• However, he ruthlessly subdued Mewat, securing Delhi from Mewati raids for nearly a century.
• Ajmer and Nagaur remained under firm Turkish control, and Balban consolidated Turkish rule in eastern Rajasthan.
• Continuous internal fighting among Rajput rulers also weakened their ability to unite against the Turks.

Strengthening the Sultanate

• The establishment of a strong monarchy, successful repulsion of Mongol invaders, and consolidation of territory in the Ganga doab and eastern Rajasthan set the stage for the Delhi Sultanate's expansion into western India and the Deccan.