Old NCERT Summary (Satish Chandra): The Delhi Sultanate - 2 | History for UPSC CSE PDF Download

The Khaljis and the Tughlaqs

•  After Balban died in 1286, there was a time of confusion in Delhi. 
•  Balban's chosen successor, Prince Mahmud, had already died while fighting against the Mongols. 
•  Balban's other son, Bughra Khan, decided to rule over Bengal and Bihar instead of taking the throne in Delhi. 
•  A young grandson of Balban was made the ruler in Delhi, but he was too young and inexperienced to manage the situation. 
•  There was a lot of anger towards the Turkish nobles for trying to control the top positions in government. 
•  Many non-Turkish families, such as the Khaljis, had come to India during the Ghurid invasion and felt they were not given proper recognition in Delhi. 
•  These families moved to Bengal and Bihar to find better opportunities and many became soldiers, with many stationed in the northwest to handle the Mongol threat. 
•  Eventually, Indian Muslims were also allowed into the nobility, but they were not happy about being denied high-ranking positions. 
•  This unhappiness was clear when Imaduddin Raihan challenged Balban. 
•  Balban had shown that a strong general could become king by gaining the support of the nobility and the army when he removed the sons of Nasiruddin Mahmud. 

The Khaljis (1290-1320)

Jalaluddin Khalji (1290-1296)

• Jalaluddin Khalji, a skilled leader and military commander, led a group of Khalji nobles to overthrow the incompetent successors of Balban in 1290.
• He had previously been the warden of the northwest marches and had successfully fought against the Mongols, gaining a reputation for his military abilities.
• The Khalji rebellion was welcomed by the non-Turkish sections of the nobility, marking a shift in power dynamics.
• The Khaljis, of mixed Turkish and Afghan origin, did not exclude Turks from high offices, but their rise to power ended the Turkish monopoly on high positions in the Delhi Sultanate.
• Jalaluddin ruled for a brief period of six years and attempted to soften some of Balban’s harsh policies. He was the first ruler to emphasize that the state should be based on the support of the governed, acknowledging the majority Hindu population in India.
• He believed that the state could not be purely Islamic due to this demographic reality.
• Jalaluddin also sought to gain the goodwill of the nobility through a policy of tolerance and avoiding harsh punishments. However, his approach was seen by many as weak and unsuitable for the times, especially given the internal and external threats facing the Delhi Sultanate.

Alauddin Khalji (1296-1316)

• Alauddin Khalji came to power by treacherously murdering his uncle and father-in-law, Jalaluddin Khalji.
• As the governor of Awadh, Alauddin had amassed a vast treasure by invading Deogir in the Deccan.
• Jalaluddin had gone to visit his nephew at Kara, hoping to retrieve this treasure, but Alauddin took advantage of the situation.
• After killing his uncle, Alauddin won over many nobles and soldiers with lavish bribes of gold.
• Initially, he faced a series of rebellions from disgruntled nobles and his own relatives.
• To quell these uprisings, Alauddin resorted to extreme measures of severity and ruthlessness.
• He eliminated most nobles who had defected to him, either by killing them or dismissing them and confiscating their properties.
• He also dealt harshly with rebellious family members and carried out mass killings of Mongols who had settled in Delhi during Jalaluddin’s reign.
• These Mongol converts had rebelled, demanding a larger share of loot from campaigns in Gujarat.
• Alauddin’s punishments extended to the wives and children of these rebels, a practice noted by historian Barani as a new and continued approach by his successors.

 Alauddin Khalji's Control Over Nobles 

•  To prevent plots against him, Alauddin Khalji enforced strict regulations on the nobles. 
•  He prohibited banquets, festivities, and marriage alliances without the sultan's permission. 
•  To discourage celebrations, he banned the use of wines and intoxicants. 
•  Alauddin Khalji also established a spy service to monitor the nobles' activities and report to him. 
•  These harsh measures made the nobles loyal to the crown and prevented rebellions during his lifetime. 

 Long-term Consequences 

•  In the long run, Khalji's methods harmed the dynasty. 
•  The old nobility was destroyed, and the new nobility became accepting of anyone who could seize the throne. 
•  After Khalji's death in 1316, his favorite, Malik Kafur, manipulated the succession. 

 Malik Kafur's Rise and Khusrau's Reign 

•  Kafur elevated a minor son of Alauddin to the throne and imprisoned or blinded his other sons without noble opposition. 
•  Kafur was eventually killed by palace guards, and a Hindu convert, Khusrau, ascended the throne. 
•  Despite accusations against Khusrau, he faced no open resentment from Muslim nobles or the Delhi population. 

 Decline of Racial Considerations 

•  Nizamuddin Auliya, a Sufi saint, accepted Khusrau's gifts, indicating a shift in social dynamics. 
•  Muslims in Delhi and surrounding areas were willing to obey anyone regardless of background, broadening the nobility's social base. 

 Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq's Rebellion 

•  In 1320, Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq led a revolt against Khusrau, marking the beginning of an open rebellion. 
•  Khusrau was defeated and killed in a fierce battle outside the capital. 

The Tughlaqs (1320—1412)

Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq founded a new dynasty that ruled until 1412. The Tughlaqs produced three capable rulers: Ghiyasuddin, his son Muhammad bin Tughlaq (1324—51), and his nephew Firuz Shah Tughlaq (1351—88).

• Ghiyasuddin and Muhammad bin Tughlaq governed an empire nearly covering the entire subcontinent.
• Firuz's empire was smaller but comparable in size to that of Alauddin Khalji.
• After Firuz's death, the Delhi Sultanate fragmented, and north India split into smaller states.
• The Tughlaqs ruled until 1412, but Timur's invasion of Delhi in 1398 is considered the end of the Tughlaq empire.

Expansion of the Delhi Sultanate

Early Expansion and Challenges:

• Under leaders like Jalaluddin and Balban, the Delhi Sultanate expanded into eastern Rajasthan but faced difficulties in controlling powerful Rajput states such as Ranthambhor.
• Jalaluddin's attempt to invade Ranthambhor was unsuccessful, resulting in southern and western Rajasthan remaining outside Sultanate control.

Alauddin Khalji's Reign:

• A turning point for the Sultanate came with Alauddin Khalji, who significantly expanded its territory in twenty-five years.
• His armies conquered Gujarat, Malwa, and most of Rajasthan, extending their reach to the Deccan and South India as far as Madurai.
• This period marked the beginning of a new phase of expansion, with the aim of bringing these territories under direct administrative control.
• This process was continued by Khalji's successors and reached its peak under Muhammad bin Tughlaq.

Conditions for Expansion

• The Delhi Sultanate was ready for a period of expansion.
• Malwa, Gujarat, and Deogir were under the control of Rajput dynasties that had risen to power in the late twelfth and early thirteenth centuries.
• These dynasties, despite being under Turkish rule in the Ganga valley, maintained their traditional ways and were constantly at odds with one another.
• This internal conflict made it easier for the Sultanate to conquer Malwa and Gujarat and encouraged further expansion southward.

Strategic Importance of Malwa and Gujarat

• The Turkish rulers highly valued Malwa and Gujarat for their fertile land, large population, and control over western sea ports and trade routes.
• These regions were essential for overseas trade, bringing in precious metals like gold and silver.
• Additionally, controlling Gujarat would enhance the supply of horses, crucial for the army, especially because sourcing quality horses from Central and West Asia was challenging due to Mongol pressures.
• Since the eighth century, there had been a significant trade of Arab, Iraqi, and Turkish horses imported from western sea ports.

Invasion of Gujarat

• In 1299, an army under the command of two of Alauddin Khalji ’s generals launched an invasion of Gujarat through Rajasthan, capturing Jaisalmer along the way.
• The ruler of Gujarat, Rai Karan, was caught by surprise and fled without putting up a fight.
• The invading army plundered major cities in Gujarat, including Anhilwara, known for its stunning temples and architecture.
• The renowned Somnath temple, which had been rebuilt in the 12th century, was also looted.
• A vast amount of treasure was seized, and even the wealthy Muslim merchants of Cambay were not spared.

Aftermath of the Invasion

• Rai Karan was deposed, and Gujarat fell under the control of Delhi.
• The swift and relatively easy conquest indicated that Rai Karan was unpopular, possibly due to a treacherous minister who had sought Alauddin ’s assistance to invade.
• The Gujarat army appeared poorly trained, and the administration was lax.
• Rai Karan managed to retain part of south Gujarat with the help of Ramachandra, the ruler of Deogir, leading to future conflicts between Delhi and the Yadavas of Deogir.

Consolidation of Power in Rajasthan

• After the conquest of Gujarat, Alauddin turned his attention to consolidating his rule over Rajasthan, beginning with Ranthambhor.
• Ranthambhor was ruled by Hamirdeva, a successor of Prithviraj Chauhan and had achieved victories against Raja Bhoj of Dhar and the Rana of Mewar, but these successes ultimately led to his downfall.

Conflict with Hamirdeva

• On his return to Delhi after the campaign in Gujarat, Alauddin’s Mongol soldiers rebelled over the distribution of booty.
• The rebellion was suppressed, but two Mongol nobles sought refuge in Ranthambhor.
• Alauddin ordered Hamirdeva to expel them, but Hamirdeva, honoring his duty to the refugees, refused.
• Confident in the strength of his fort, Hamirdeva underestimated Alauddin’s determination.
• Ranthambhor, known for its impenetrability and having previously resisted Jalaluddin Khalji, initially withstood Alauddin’s forces.
• Ultimately, Alauddin had to lead the campaign himself, with the poet Amir Khusrau accompanying him and vividly describing the siege of the fort.

Siege of Ranthambhor

• After three months of siege and facing defeat, the jauhar ceremony took place, where women self-immolated, and men fought to the death.
• This event marked the first Persian account of jauhar.
• The Mongols also perished alongside the Rajputs in this battle, which occurred in 1301.

Rajasthan

After defeating Ranthambhor, Alauddin Khilji focused on subduing Chittor, the second most powerful state in Rajasthan. Chittor was strategically important as it controlled the route from Ajmer to Malwa.

Conflict with Ratan Singh

• Ratan Singh, the ruler of Chittor, had angered Alauddin by denying his armies passage through Mewar to Gujarat.
• This refusal, along with Chittor's strategic importance, prompted Alauddin to attack.

The Legend of Padmini

• There is a famous legend that Alauddin attacked Chittor because he desired Padmini, Ratan Singh's beautiful queen.
• However, many modern historians doubt this legend as it first appeared over a century later, famously embellished by the poet Malik Muhammad Jaisi.
• In Jaisi's tale, Padmini is depicted as a princess from Singhaldvipa, and Ratan Singh's adventures to bring her to Chittor are filled with improbable events.

The Siege of Chittor

• Alauddin laid siege to Chittor, which resisted valiantly for several months.
• In 1303, Alauddin stormed the fort.
• During the siege, the Rajputs performed  jauhar  (mass self-immolation), and most warriors died fighting.
• Ratan Singh was captured alive but later died, and his wife Padmini, along with other queens, also took their lives.

Aftermath

• Chittor was given to Alauddin’s minor son, Khizr Khan, with a Muslim garrison stationed in the fort.
• Over time, the fort's control was transferred to a cousin of Ratan Singh.

Conquest of Rajasthan

• Alauddin also captured Jalor, further consolidating his control over Rajasthan.
• Most major states in Rajasthan were forced to submit, but Alauddin did not impose direct administration.
• Rajput rulers were allowed to continue ruling their lands, provided they paid tribute and obeyed the sultan's orders.
• Muslim garrisons were established in key towns like Ajmer and Nagaur.

This campaign effectively subdued Rajasthan, integrating it into Alauddin Khilji's expanding empire.

Deccan and South India

•  Before fully taking over Rajasthan, Alauddin Khilji had already conquered Malwa, a large area that even skilled mapmakers found hard to define.  Unlike Rajasthan, Malwa was governed directly, with a governor put in charge. 
•  In 1306-07, Alauddin Khilji organized two military campaigns:  One against Rai Karan in Baglana.The other against Rai Ramachandra of Deogir, who had previously promised to pay tribute to Delhi but had not done so.
• Malik Kafur led the second army and defeated Rai Ramachandra. Rai Ramachandra was treated with respect and later returned to his lands with gifts and a marriage alliance.  This marriage alliance helped Alauddin expand his influence in the Deccan. 
•  Between 1309 and 1311, Malik Kafur carried out two major campaigns in South India against: Warangal, DwaSamudra, Mabar, Madurai
•  These missions were significant as they marked the first Muslim invasions into areas as far south as Madurai. Kafur brought back a lot of wealth and learned more about the region, but it wasn't new information since the trade routes were already known. 
•  A Muslim trading community existed in Mabar, showing that connections to South India were established. 
•  The campaigns increased Kafur's status, leading to his appointment as vice-regent of the empire, but their political effects were not very strong. 
•  Kafur forced the rulers of Warangal and Dwar Samudra to hand over treasures, elephants, and commit to paying annual tributes.

The Expansion of the Delhi Sultanate in Southern India

• Early Attempts and Challenges:In the early 14th century, the Delhi Sultanate, under leaders like Malik Kafur, attempted to expand its influence in Southern India.
  • Kafur faced difficulties in subduing the Tamil armies despite plundering wealthy temples such as those in Chidambaram.
  • After Alauddin Khalji's death, the southern kingdoms were eventually brought under direct Delhi administration.
• Direct Administration and Rebellions:Alauddin Khalji initially opposed direct rule over southern states. However, after his death, his policy was continued.
  • In 1315, when Rai Ramachandra's sons rebelled against Delhi’s rule, Malik Kafur swiftly crushed the rebellion and established direct control over the region.
• Mubarak Shah and Continued Campaigns:Mubarak Shah, a successor of Alauddin, furthered the campaigns in the south by subduing Deogir and Warangal, imposing tributes and raids in the region.
  • Khusrau Khan, a slave of the sultan, also led raids into Mabar, although no permanent conquests were made during this period.
• Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq’s Reign:The real push for expansion came under Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq and his son Muhammad bin Tughlaq.
  • Muhammad bin Tughlaq was instrumental in the renewed efforts to conquer Warangal, Mabar, and further territories.
  • Despite initial setbacks, including a retreat after facing strong resistance in Warangal, Tughlaq reorganized his forces and successfully captured the region.
  • Following the conquest of Warangal, Mabar was annexed, and Tughlaq continued to raid and subdue other areas, including Orissa and Bengal, which had been independent since Balban’s time.
• Expansion to Madurai and Kampili:By 1324, the Delhi Sultanate had extended its reach to Madurai in Southern India.
  • The last Hindu principality in the region, Kampili in south Karnataka, was annexed in 1328 under the pretext of sheltering a rebel cousin of Muhammad bin Tughlaq, providing a justification for the attack.

 The sudden expansion of the Delhi Sultanate to the far south and east, including Orissa, created significant administrative and financial challenges for Muhammad bin Tughlaq. 

Internal Reforms and Experiments

•  By the time Alauddin Khalji ascended the throne, the Delhi Sultanate had solidified its position in the upper Ganga valley and eastern Rajasthan. 
•  This stability encouraged the sultans to implement a series of internal reforms and experiments aimed at improving administration, strengthening the army, and enhancing land revenue systems. 
•  The reforms also focused on expanding and improving cultivation and ensuring the welfare of citizens in the rapidly growing towns. 
•  Not all measures were successful; some failed due to inexperience, poor planning, or opposition from vested interests. 
•  However, these efforts indicate that the Turkish state had achieved a level of stability and was ready to focus on more than just warfare and maintaining law and order. 

Market Control and Agrarian Policy of Alauddin

Alauddin's efforts to control markets were seen as extraordinary by his contemporaries. After returning from the Chittor campaign, he issued orders to fix the prices of various commodities, including foodgrains, sugar, cooking oil, imported cloth, horses, cattle, and slave boys and girls. To implement this, he established three markets in Delhi:

• One for foodgrains
• One for costly cloth
• One for horses, slaves, and cattle

Each market was overseen by a high officer called a shahna, who maintained a register of merchants and strictly controlled shopkeepers and prices.

Regulation of Prices

• Regulation of prices, especially for foodgrains, was crucial for medieval rulers to ensure the support of citizens and the army.
• Alauddin had additional reasons for controlling the market due to the Mongol invasions. He needed to raise a large army to counter these invasions but had to lower prices and soldiers' salaries to conserve his treasures.

Agrarian Policy

• To ensure a steady supply of cheap foodgrains, Alauddin implemented several measures:
• He declared that land revenue in the doab region (from Meerut to the border of Kara) would be paid directly to the state, and these villages would not be assigned to anyone.
• He raised the land revenue to half of the produce, which was a heavy burden on the peasants.
• The state demand was increased, and peasants were obliged to pay it in cash, forcing them to sell their foodgrains at low prices to banjaras (traditional transporters) who would carry them to towns.

Hoarding and Warehousing

• To prevent hoarding, all banjaras were registered, and their agents and families were held collectively responsible for any violations.
• The state also set up its own warehouses to stock foodgrains, releasing them during famines or supply shortages.

Price Stability and Punishments

• Alauddin closely monitored the markets and imposed harsh punishments for shopkeepers who charged higher prices or used false weights and measures.
• Prices were not allowed to increase even by a small amount during famines. For example, wheat was sold at 7½ jitals a man, barley at 4 jitals, and good quality rice at 5 jitals.
• Barani noted that the stability of grain prices was remarkable for the time.

Price Control Under Alauddin Khilji

Price regulation was crucial for Sultan Alauddin Khilji to ensure a steady supply of quality horses to the army at reasonable prices, which was vital for maintaining military efficiency.

• Following the conquest of Gujarat, the supply of horses improved.
• Alauddin Khilji fixed prices for horses, with first-grade horses costing between 100 to 120 tankas and inferior ponies (tattus) ranging from 10 to 25 tankas.
• Prices of cattle and slaves were also strictly regulated, indicating that slavery was a normal aspect of medieval Indian society. Barani, a contemporary historian, provides detailed information on these prices.
• Although not critical, prices for other goods like expensive cloth and perfumes were fixed to prevent general price inflation or to appease the nobility.
• To encourage the trade of fine cloth, large sums were advanced to Multani traders to bring quality cloth to Delhi, making it a major market for such goods.

Cash Payments to Soldiers

• The collection of land revenue in cash allowed Alauddin to pay his soldiers in cash, a practice he pioneered in the Sultanate.
• Cavalrymen (asatvars) during his reign received an annual salary of 238 tankas, roughly 20 tankas per month, expected to cover their own expenses for food, horses, and equipment.
• Despite being lower than later Mughal salaries, such as 20 rupees per month during Akbar’s era, the pay was considered decent for the time.
• Turkish cavalrymen in the 13th and 14th centuries were expected to earn a salary that reflected a gentleman’s lifestyle, making Alauddin’s salaries relatively low and justifying the need for market control.

Barani’s Perspective

• Barani believed that Alauddin’s market control aimed to punish Hindu traders, who were seen as profiteers, since most traders were Hindus.
• However, significant overland trade to West and Central Asia was conducted by Muslim Khurasanis and Multanis, indicating that Alauddin’s measures also affected these groups, a point Barani did not acknowledge.

It is uncertain whether Alauddin's market regulations applied solely to Delhi or extended to other towns in the empire. Barani suggests that the regulations for Delhi were typically followed in other towns as well. Regardless, the army was stationed not only in Delhi but also in other towns. However, we lack sufficient information to make a definitive conclusion on this matter.

What is clear is that while merchants, both Hindus and Muslims, may have complained about the price control, the army and all citizens, regardless of their religious beliefs, benefited from the low prices of food grains and other goods.

Agrarian Reforms

Alauddin Khilji implemented significant agrarian reforms focused on land revenue administration. He was the first Sultan to assess land revenue in the doab region based on the actual land under cultivation, ensuring that wealthier landlords could not shift their tax burden onto poorer farmers. This meant that local landlords, known as khuts and muqaddams, were required to pay the same taxes as other villagers. They had to pay taxes on milch cattle and houses, and could no longer collect illegal cesses.

Barani, a contemporary historian, described how these measures impoverished the khuts and muqaddams, making them unable to afford luxuries and forcing their wives to work for Muslim families. Direct Collection and Official Accountability

• The policy of direct land revenue collection by the state, based on land measurement, depended on the honesty of local officials like amils.
• Alauddin ensured these officials received sufficient salaries but insisted on strict auditing of their accounts.
• Small defaults could lead to severe punishments, creating a climate of fear among officials.

Barani's account, though exaggerated, reflects the prestige associated with government service at the time. Measures Against Privileged Sections

• Barani suggested that Alauddin's measures targeted Hindus, but they primarily aimed at the privileged rural elite.
• These reforms were not socialist but were responses to the emergency posed by the Mongol threat.

Price Controls

• Alauddin attempted to control the prices of a wide range of goods, from food to everyday items, as noted by Barani.
• This led to complicated laws, widespread attempts to violate them, and severe punishments, causing resentment among the populace.
• While Alauddin's agrarian policies were harsh and impacted ordinary cultivators, they were not so oppressive as to incite rebellion or mass migration.

Achievements and Impact of Alauddin Khilji’s Market Regulations

The market regulations implemented by Alauddin Khilji came to an end with his death, but they did bring about several significant gains. According to the historian Barani, these regulations allowed Alauddin to raise a large and efficient cavalry, which was crucial in defeating subsequent Mongol invasions with great force and driving them beyond the Indus River.

Land Revenue Reforms

• Alauddin Khilji’s land revenue reforms marked an important step towards establishing a closer relationship with rural areas. These measures were so effective that some of them were continued by his successors.
• The foundation laid by Alauddin’s reforms later provided the basis for agrarian reforms under rulers like Sher Shah and Akbar.

Muhammad Tughlaq's Experiments

Muhammad Bin Tughlaq

• After Alauddin Khalji, Muhammad bin Tughlaq (1324–1351) is recognized as a ruler who tried many bold ideas and showed great interest in agriculture.
• In some ways, Muhammad bin Tughlaq was one of the most remarkable leaders of his era.
• He was knowledgeable in religion and philosophy, and he had a thoughtful and open-minded attitude.
• This openness was not accepted by strict religious scholars, who called him a 'rationalist' because he questioned traditional beliefs.
• However, his quick and impatient actions led to the failure of many of his ideas, giving him the label of an 'ill-starred idealist'.
• Muhammad Tughlaq's rule started in tough times.
• Sultan Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq was coming back to Delhi after a successful battle in Bengal when a wooden tent, which Muhammad Tughlaq hurriedly arranged to greet his father, fell during a parade with captured elephants.
• This incident led to the Sultan's death and sparked several rumors.
• Some rumors suggested that Muhammad Tughlaq had plotted against his father, while others claimed it was a divine curse or the anger of the respected saint Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya, whom the ruler had threatened.

Transfer of Capital to Daulatabad

One of Muhammad Tughlaq's most contentious actions after assuming power was the transfer of the capital from Delhi to Deogir, later renamed Daulatabad.

Background:

• Deogir had previously served as a base for Turkish expansion in South India.
• Muhammad Tughlaq himself had spent considerable time there as a prince.
• The local population in South India resented what they perceived as foreign rule, leading to significant political challenges for the Sultan.

Reasons for the Move:

• Direct Control: Tughlaq aimed to exert better control over South India from Deogir.
• Political Stability: The move was intended to stabilize the region and counteract local rebellions.

Actions Taken:

• Relocation Orders: Tughlaq ordered many officers, their followers, and prominent individuals, including Sufi saints, to relocate to Deogir. 
• Generous Grants: Those relocated were offered generous grants and arrangements for their accommodation.
• Infrastructure Improvements: Tughlaq attempted to improve the journey between Delhi and Daulatabad by building a road and establishing rest houses.

Challenges Faced:

• Distance: The journey of over 1500 km proved challenging.
• Harsh Conditions: Many people suffered and perished due to the harsh conditions and heat during the journey.

Outcome:

• Despite the official pressure for relocation and the efforts to improve the journey, Delhi remained a large and bustling city in Tughlaq's absence.
• Coins minted in Delhi during Tughlaq's time in Deogir indicate the continued significance of Delhi. 

Reign of Muhammad Tughlaq: Challenges and Experiments

Shift from Delhi to Daulatabad

• The movement from Delhi to Daulatabad occurred during the summer, causing discomfort to many, especially those who had lived in Delhi for generations and considered it home.
• This led to a sense of discontent among the people.

Abandoning Daulatabad

• After a few years, Muhammad Tughlaq realized the difficulty of controlling north India from Daulatabad, just as he couldn't control the south from Delhi.
• Consequently, he decided to abandon Daulatabad.

Long-term Benefits of the Exodus

• The attempt to establish Daulatabad as a second capital, despite its failure, had several long-term benefits.
• It improved communication and brought north and south India closer together.
• Many people, including religious leaders, who had moved to Daulatabad settled there and helped spread the cultural, religious, and social ideas of north India in the Deccan.
• This initiated a new process of cultural interaction between north and south India and within south India itself.

Introduction of Token Currency

• During this period, Muhammad Tughlaq introduced the concept of 'token currency.'
• Inspired by successful experiments in other countries, such as China and Iran, Tughlaq decided to issue a bronze coin with the same value as the silver tanka due to a shortage of silver.
• This idea was new in India, and convincing traders and the public to accept it proved challenging.

Challenges in Implementing Token Currency

• The government struggled to prevent the forgery of these new coins, leading to their rapid devaluation in the market.
• Eventually, Muhammad Tughlaq had to withdraw the token currency, offering to exchange silver pieces for bronze coins.
• Forged coins were identified and discarded, while genuine coins were exchanged.

Impact on Prestige and Recovery

• The failure of these experiments initially harmed the sovereign's prestige and resulted in financial waste.
• However, the government quickly recovered, and contemporary travelers like Ibn Battuta observed no lasting negative effects from these experiments.

Ongoing Challenges

• Muhammad Tughlaq faced ongoing challenges related to frontier security, administration (especially revenue administration), and maintaining relations with the nobles during his reign.

(i) Muhammad Tughlaq and the Mongols

• During the early years of Muhammad Tughlaq’s reign, the Mongols, led by Tarmashirin, invaded Sind and reached as far as Meerut, threatening Delhi.
• Muhammad Tughlaq defeated the Mongols near the Jhelum River and expanded his territory beyond the Indus River, reaching Peshawar.
• This victory demonstrated Tughlaq’s ability to go on the offensive against the Mongols.

(ii) Expansions in the North-West

• After returning from Deogir, Tughlaq aimed to occupy Ghazni and Afghanistan, with some sources suggesting ambitions as far as Khurasan and Iraq.
• Historians debate Tughlaq’s true objectives, with some believing he aimed to reestablish a stronghold along the Hindukush and Qandahar.
• Many Central Asian princes at Tughlaq’s court likely saw an opportunity to expel the Mongols from these regions.

(iii) Khurasan Project and Qarachil Expedition

• The Khurasan project’s impact should not be overstated or confused with the Qarachil expedition.
• The Qarachil expedition targeted the Kumaon hills in the Himalayas, possibly to control the entry of horses from Sinkiang, rather than conquering China as some historians later suggested.
• The expedition initially saw success but ultimately faced disaster in the inhospitable Himalayan region, with only 10 survivors from an army of 10,000.
• Despite this, the hill rajas accepted Delhi’s overlordship, and Tughlaq conducted further expeditions in the Kangra hills, securing the hill regions.

Agrarian Reforms and Nobility

Muhammad Tughlaq’s Agrarian Reforms

• Muhammad Tughlaq implemented various measures to enhance agriculture, primarily in the doab region. Unlike Alauddin Khalji, Tughlaq did not aim to reduce the khuts and muqaddams (village headmen) to the status of ordinary cultivators. However, he sought an adequate share of land revenue for the state.
• Tughlaq’s advocated measures had a long-term impact but failed disastrously during his reign. The failure could be attributed to bad planning or faulty implementation by inexperienced officials.
• At the beginning of Tughlaq’s reign, a severe peasant rebellion erupted in the Gangetic doab, leading to harsh measures against fleeing peasants. Historians suggest that the rebellion was triggered by over-assessment, with the state’s share fixed arbitrarily rather than based on actual produce.
• A prolonged famine exacerbated the situation, and efforts at relief came too late. The sultan temporarily abandoned Delhi due to the dire conditions.

Extension and Improvement of Cultivation

• Upon returning to Delhi, Tughlaq initiated a scheme to extend and improve cultivation in the doab by establishing the diwan-i-amir-i-kohi. The area was divided into development blocs, aiming to encourage superior crops and provide loans to cultivators.
• However, the scheme failed due to the incompetence and dishonesty of the chosen officials, leading to misappropriation of funds. The large sums advanced for the project were not recoverable.
• Fortunately, Tughlaq passed away before the situation worsened, and his successor, Firuz, wrote off the loans. Despite the failure, Tughlaq’s policy for extending and improving cultivation was later adopted and vigorously pursued by Firuz and Akbar.

Problem of Nobility

• Tughlaq also faced the challenge of managing the nobility, which had shifted from the Chahalgani Turks to Khaljis, comprising Muslims of various races, including Indian converts. Tughlaq further broadened the nobility by incorporating individuals from non-noble families but with suitable qualifications.

The nobility during Muhammad Tughlaq's reign was diverse, comprising various groups such as barbers, cooks, weavers, and wine-makers. While most of these officials were descendants of Muslim converts, a few Hindus were also included. There was no evidence to suggest that these individuals were uneducated or incapable of performing their duties. However, the earlier office-holders, who came from old noble families, resented this change. The historian Barani criticized Muhammad Tughlaq for this reason.Tughlaq also welcomed foreigners into the nobility, further diversifying his court. This lack of cohesion among the nobility, coupled with the vastness of the empire providing opportunities for rebellion, weakened the Sultanate. Tughlaq's hot temper and harsh punishments for suspected disloyalty exacerbated this trend.Thus, while Muhammad bin Tughlaq's reign represented the peak of the Delhi Sultanate, it also marked the beginning of its decline.

Decline and Disintegration of the Delhi Sultanate: Firuz and His Successors

Muhammad Tughlaq faced numerous challenges during his reign, including widespread rebellions in various parts of the empire. These rebellions, led by ambitious nobles, were not new, but Tughlaq struggled to suppress them effectively.

• Rebellions and Challenges: During the latter half of Muhammad Tughlaq’s reign, there were repeated rebellions in different parts of the empire. Rebellions by ambitious nobles, particularly in the outlying areas, were not a new feature. In most cases, the sultans had been able to suppress them with the help of the central army and a band of loyal nobles. Muhammad Tughlaq’s difficulties were several. The rebellions took place one after another in different parts of the empire—in Bengal, in Mabar (Tamil Nadu), in Warangal, in Kampili (Karnataka), in West Bengal, in Awadh, and in Gujarat and Sindh.
• South India Rebellions: The rebellions in South India were the most serious. Initially, these rebellions were organized by local governors. The sultan hurried to South India to suppress them. However, a plague broke out in his army, resulting in the death of two-thirds of his forces. This was a blow from which Muhammad Tughlaq could never recover.
• Rise of New Empires: After Tughlaq’s initial setbacks, the rebellions in South India led to the rise of two significant empires:
  1.Vijayanagara Empire: Founded by two brothers, Harihara and Bukka, this empire gradually expanded to embrace the entire South.
  2.Bahmani Empire: Established by foreign nobles near Daulatabad in the Deccan, this principality also expanded significantly.

• Loss of Territories: Bengal also declared independence during this period. Muhammad Tughlaq managed to quell rebellions in Awadh, Gujarat, and Sind, but while in Sind, he died and was succeeded by his cousin, Firuz Tughlaq.

• Firuz Tughlaq’s Rule: After taking power, Firuz Tughlaq faced the challenge of preventing the breakup of the Delhi Sultanate. He adopted a policy of appeasing the nobles, the army, and the theologians, and focused on asserting authority only in easily manageable areas.

• Loss of Bengal: Firuz Tughlaq attempted to reassert control over Bengal with two military campaigns, but both were unsuccessful, leading to Bengal’s permanent loss to the Sultanate.

• Campaigns and Achievements: Despite losing Bengal, the Sultanate remained as large as during the early years of Alauddin Khalji ’s reign. Firuz led campaigns against the rulers of Jajnagar (Orissa) and Kangra (Punjab Hills), achieving plunder but not annexation. His longest campaigns dealt with rebellions in Gujarat and Thatta, where despite crushing the rebellions, the army suffered great hardship.

Firuz Tughlaq's Leadership and Policies

Firuz Tughlaq may not have been a remarkable military leader, but his reign was marked by peace and steady development. He implemented several important policies:

• Hereditary Succession: Firuz allowed noble families to pass on their positions, including iqta (land grants), to their heirs. This included sons, sons-in-law, or even slaves if no heirs were available.
• Abolishment of Torture: He abolished the practice of torturing nobles and officials during audits of their iqta, which earned him the nobles' favor and reduced rebellions.
• Army Reforms: Firuz extended hereditary principles to the army, allowing soldiers to pass their roles to family members or slaves. However, soldiers were paid through land revenue assignments, which proved detrimental in the long run.
• Military Administration: The military administration became lax under Firuz. Soldiers could bribe clerks to pass useless horses at muster, and Firuz himself once mistakenly encouraged such bribery.

Relations with Theologians

• Firuz attempted to win over theologians by presenting himself as a true Muslim king and promoting the idea of a genuinely Islamic state.
• Since the time of Iltutmish, there had been a struggle between orthodox theologians and sultans regarding state policy, especially towards non-Muslims.
• Turkish rulers, from Iltutmish onward, often ignored theologians' dictates and waged jihad against Hindu rulers when it suited them.
• To appease theologians, Firuz appointed several to high offices, while the judiciary and education remained under theological control.

 Firuz Tughlaq's Policies and Reforms 

• Continuity with Predecessors  : Firuz Tughlaq, despite his strict appearance, mostly continued the policies of previous rulers. He did not allow religious scholars to control state decisions but made some important compromises with them. For example, he prohibited practices considered un-Islamic by orthodox theologians, like Muslim women visiting the graves of saints, and he persecuted various Muslim sects deemed heretical. 
• Changes in Taxation : During Firuz's rule, the jizyah tax was separated from land revenue. He refused to exempt Brahmans from jizyah, as sharia law did not allow this exemption. Only women, children, the disabled, and the indigent were exempt from jizyah. Firuz even publicly punished a Brahman for preaching against sharia and ordered the destruction of beautiful wall paintings in his palace for similar reasons. However, he also supported music and enjoyed wine despite his orthodox stance
•  Translation of Hindu Texts : Firuz Tughlaq, despite his narrow views, was the first ruler to promote the translation of Hindu religious texts from Sanskrit into Persian to foster understanding of Hindu beliefs and practices. During his reign, many books on music, medicine, and mathematics were also translated. 
• Humanitarian Measures:  Firuz implemented several humanitarian reforms, such as banning harsh punishments like amputations for theft, establishing hospitals for free treatment of the poor, and providing dowries for poor daughters. While these measures likely aimed to help Muslims from respectable families who had fallen on hard times, they also reinforced the idea of the state as a benevolent institution, which was an important principle in medieval times. Firuz deserves credit for emphasizing this principle. 
• Economic and Infrastructure Development:  Firuz was also focused on improving the country's economy and established a large public works department to oversee his building projects. He repaired and constructed several canals, including a 200-kilometer canal from the Sutlej River to Hansi and another from the Yamuna River. These canals were intended for irrigation and to supply water to new towns he established, such as Hissar-Firuzah (in modern Haryana) and Firuzabad (in modern Uttar Pradesh), which still exist today.

Firuz's Policy of Slave Recruitment

• Economic and Political Strategy: Firuz ordered his officials to select handsome and well-born young boys as slaves whenever they attacked a place. This policy had both economic and political implications.
• Accumulation of Slaves: Through this practice, Firuz gradually gathered around 180,000 slaves. Some of these slaves were trained for various handicrafts and placed in royal workshops (karkhanas) across the empire.
• Formation of Loyal Soldier Corps: Others were formed into a corps of soldiers directly dependent on the sultan, ensuring their loyalty. This practice was not new, as early Turkish sultans in India had recruited slaves, but Firuz aimed to create a more loyal force.

Challenges After Firuz's Death

• Power Struggle: After Firuz's death in 1388, the struggle for power between the sultan and the nobles reemerged. Local zamindars and rajas took advantage of the situation to assert their independence.
• Firuzi Slaves' Intervention:. new factor was the active intervention of the Firuzi slaves, who attempted to place their own nominee on the throne. Sultan Muhammad, Firuz's son, stabilized his position with their help but had to break the power of the slaves by killing, imprisoning, and scattering them.
• Weakening of Central Authority: Neither Sultan Muhammad nor his successor, Nasiruddin Mahmud, could control the ambitious nobles and stubborn rajas. Firuz's reforms had made the nobility too strong and the army inefficient, leading to the governors of provinces becoming independent. The sultan of Delhi was confined to a small area around Delhi.

Timur's Invasion and the Fall of the Sultanate

• Timur's Background: Timur, a Turk with a blood relationship to Genghis Khan, began his conquests in 1370, bringing a vast territory under his control.
• Motive for Invasion: Timur's raid into India in 1398 was motivated by the desire to seize the wealth accumulated by the sultans of Delhi over the past 200 years.
• Plundering and Sacking: Timur's army mercilessly sacked and plundered various towns on their way to Delhi. Upon entering Delhi, Timur continued the violence, leading to the deaths of a large number of people, both Hindu and Muslim, including women and children.

Decline of the Delhi Sultanate

• Fragmentation of Authority: With the collapse of the Delhi Sultanate, there was no effective leadership to counter incursions. The central authority weakened, and provincial governors gained independence.
• Territorial Reduction: The sultanate's control was reduced to a small area surrounding Delhi. The once-powerful dominion of the Delhi sultans shrank significantly.
• Historical Commentary: The decline was humorously summarized by a saying that the "dominance of the Lord of the Universe" (a title for the sultans) extended only from Delhi to Palam, highlighting the drastic reduction in their territory and power.

Timur's invasion highlighted the risks of weak governance in India, leading to a massive outflow of wealth, including gold, silver, and jewelry. He also took many Indian artisans, such as masons, stone cutters, and carpenters, who assisted him in constructing fine buildings in his capital, Samarqand. Timur had previously employed a similar strategy in Iranian towns he had conquered. However, the direct political impact of his invasion on India was minimal. This invasion is often seen as marking the decline of strong rule by the Delhi sultans, although the Tughlaq dynasty continued to exist until 1412.

Disintegration of the Delhi Sultanate

• The disintegration of the Delhi Sultanate cannot be blamed on a single ruler. There were ongoing issues during medieval times, such as the relationship between the monarch and the nobles, conflicts with local rulers and zamindars, and regional and geographical factors.
• Individual rulers attempted to address these problems, but none could bring about fundamental changes in society to counter these persistent issues.
• The political fabric was fragile, and any weakness in central administration triggered a chain reaction leading to disintegration.
• Firuz Tughlaq managed to contain the problems that arose from the empire's over-expansion under Ghiyasuddin and Muhammad Tughlaq. He implemented reforms to appease nobles and soldiers, but these weakened the central administration.
• The period from 1200 to 1400 witnessed significant changes in Indian life, including government systems, the condition of the people, and the development of art and architecture, which will be discussed in another chapter.