Old NCERT Textbook (Satish Chandra): Economic and Social Life, Education and Religious Beliefs | History for UPSC CSE PDF Download

 Page 1


FIVE 
The Age of Conflict 
(Circa 1000-1200) 
The period from 1000 ·to 1200 saw rapid changes both in West and 
Central Asia, and in north India. It were these developments which 
led to the incursion of the Turks into northern India leading to their 
. rule towards the end of the period. 
By the end of the ninth century, the Abbasid caliphate was in 
decline. Its place was taken by a series .of states ruled by Islamized 
Turks. The Turks had entered the Abbasid empire duringthe ninth 
centµry as palace-guards atid.qiercen:iry soldiers. Soon they emerged 
as the king-makers. As the power of the central government declined, 
provincial governors started assuming independent status, though 
for sometime the fiction of unity was kept up by the. caliph formally 
granting the title of amfr-ul-umra (Commander of Co~manders) 
on generals who were able to carve out a separate spheres of authority. 
These new rulers assumed the title of 'amir' at.first, and of 'sultan' 
later on. 
The continuous incursion of the Turkish tribesmen from Central 
Asia, the mercenary character of the Turkish soldiers who· were 
prepared to switch loyalties and abandon an unsucc,essful ruler 
without much thought, the strife between different Muslim sects~ 
and between different regi.ons made the period a restless one. Empires 
and states rose and fell in rapid successi~n. In this situation, only a 
. bold warrior and leader of men, a person who was as adept in warfare 
as in withstanding intrigues could come to the surface. 
. The Turkish tribesmen brought with them the habit of ruthless 
plunder. Their main mode of warfare consisted of rapid advance and 
retreat, lightning raids, and attacking any loose body of stragglers. 
They could do this because of the excellent quality of their horses as 
also their hardihood so that they could cover incredible distances on 
horseback. 
Page 2


FIVE 
The Age of Conflict 
(Circa 1000-1200) 
The period from 1000 ·to 1200 saw rapid changes both in West and 
Central Asia, and in north India. It were these developments which 
led to the incursion of the Turks into northern India leading to their 
. rule towards the end of the period. 
By the end of the ninth century, the Abbasid caliphate was in 
decline. Its place was taken by a series .of states ruled by Islamized 
Turks. The Turks had entered the Abbasid empire duringthe ninth 
centµry as palace-guards atid.qiercen:iry soldiers. Soon they emerged 
as the king-makers. As the power of the central government declined, 
provincial governors started assuming independent status, though 
for sometime the fiction of unity was kept up by the. caliph formally 
granting the title of amfr-ul-umra (Commander of Co~manders) 
on generals who were able to carve out a separate spheres of authority. 
These new rulers assumed the title of 'amir' at.first, and of 'sultan' 
later on. 
The continuous incursion of the Turkish tribesmen from Central 
Asia, the mercenary character of the Turkish soldiers who· were 
prepared to switch loyalties and abandon an unsucc,essful ruler 
without much thought, the strife between different Muslim sects~ 
and between different regi.ons made the period a restless one. Empires 
and states rose and fell in rapid successi~n. In this situation, only a 
. bold warrior and leader of men, a person who was as adept in warfare 
as in withstanding intrigues could come to the surface. 
. The Turkish tribesmen brought with them the habit of ruthless 
plunder. Their main mode of warfare consisted of rapid advance and 
retreat, lightning raids, and attacking any loose body of stragglers. 
They could do this because of the excellent quality of their horses as 
also their hardihood so that they could cover incredible distances on 
horseback. 
58 A HIS,.i>RY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA 
Meanwhile, the break-up of the Gurjara-Pratihara empire led to 
a phase of political uncertainty in north India, and a new phase of 
struggle for domination. As a result, little attention was paid to the 
emergence of aggressive, expansionist Turkish states on the 
northwestern border oflndia and in West Asia. 
Kabul, Qandahar, and its neighbouring area to the south called 
Zabul or Zamindaw~r, were c~nsidered parts of al-Hind or lnqia till 
the end of the ninth century. There were many· Buddhist and Hindu 
shrines in the area, the most important being the 53.5 m colossal 
statue of Buddha at Bamiyan, with caves for residence of a thousand 
monks. The area upto the river Oxus was ruled by many dynasties, 
some of them claiming descent from Kanishka. These kingdoms, 
--------baEk~El-by-a-m-i~-ed-pepu-1-atio~f--leeal-tribes-,Hu·nas,---T-urks,-exi-led 
Iranians and Indians (such as Bhati Rajputs} offered stiff resistance 
to the Arab effort to enter the area for tribute, plunder and slaves; 
Consequently, there was continuous skirmishing on both_ sides of 
the border. 
THE GHAZNAVIDS 
Towards the end of the ninth century, Trans-Oxiana, Khurasan and 
parts. of I.ran were being ruled by the Samanids who were Iranians 
by descent. The Samanids had to battle continually with the non­
M uslim 1urkish tribesmen on their northern and eastern frontiers. 
It w~s during this struggle that a new type_of soldier, the ghazi, w~s 
born. The battle against the Turks, lll9S! gf whom WQrs_hipp_ed_th~ 
forces of nature and were heathens in the eyes of the Muslims, was a 
struggle for religion as well as for the safety of the state. Hence, the 
ghazi was as much a missionary as a fighter. He acted as a loo~e 
auxiliary of the regular armies, a_nd made up for his pay by plunder. 
ltwas the resourcefulness oftheghazi and his willmgness to undergo 
great privations for the sake of the cause which enabled these infant 
Muslim states to hold their own against the heathen Turks. In course 
of time, many Turks became Muslims, but the struggle against 
renewed incursions of the non-Muslim Turkish tribes continued. The 
Islamized Turkish tribes were to emerge as the greatest defenders 
Page 3


FIVE 
The Age of Conflict 
(Circa 1000-1200) 
The period from 1000 ·to 1200 saw rapid changes both in West and 
Central Asia, and in north India. It were these developments which 
led to the incursion of the Turks into northern India leading to their 
. rule towards the end of the period. 
By the end of the ninth century, the Abbasid caliphate was in 
decline. Its place was taken by a series .of states ruled by Islamized 
Turks. The Turks had entered the Abbasid empire duringthe ninth 
centµry as palace-guards atid.qiercen:iry soldiers. Soon they emerged 
as the king-makers. As the power of the central government declined, 
provincial governors started assuming independent status, though 
for sometime the fiction of unity was kept up by the. caliph formally 
granting the title of amfr-ul-umra (Commander of Co~manders) 
on generals who were able to carve out a separate spheres of authority. 
These new rulers assumed the title of 'amir' at.first, and of 'sultan' 
later on. 
The continuous incursion of the Turkish tribesmen from Central 
Asia, the mercenary character of the Turkish soldiers who· were 
prepared to switch loyalties and abandon an unsucc,essful ruler 
without much thought, the strife between different Muslim sects~ 
and between different regi.ons made the period a restless one. Empires 
and states rose and fell in rapid successi~n. In this situation, only a 
. bold warrior and leader of men, a person who was as adept in warfare 
as in withstanding intrigues could come to the surface. 
. The Turkish tribesmen brought with them the habit of ruthless 
plunder. Their main mode of warfare consisted of rapid advance and 
retreat, lightning raids, and attacking any loose body of stragglers. 
They could do this because of the excellent quality of their horses as 
also their hardihood so that they could cover incredible distances on 
horseback. 
58 A HIS,.i>RY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA 
Meanwhile, the break-up of the Gurjara-Pratihara empire led to 
a phase of political uncertainty in north India, and a new phase of 
struggle for domination. As a result, little attention was paid to the 
emergence of aggressive, expansionist Turkish states on the 
northwestern border oflndia and in West Asia. 
Kabul, Qandahar, and its neighbouring area to the south called 
Zabul or Zamindaw~r, were c~nsidered parts of al-Hind or lnqia till 
the end of the ninth century. There were many· Buddhist and Hindu 
shrines in the area, the most important being the 53.5 m colossal 
statue of Buddha at Bamiyan, with caves for residence of a thousand 
monks. The area upto the river Oxus was ruled by many dynasties, 
some of them claiming descent from Kanishka. These kingdoms, 
--------baEk~El-by-a-m-i~-ed-pepu-1-atio~f--leeal-tribes-,Hu·nas,---T-urks,-exi-led 
Iranians and Indians (such as Bhati Rajputs} offered stiff resistance 
to the Arab effort to enter the area for tribute, plunder and slaves; 
Consequently, there was continuous skirmishing on both_ sides of 
the border. 
THE GHAZNAVIDS 
Towards the end of the ninth century, Trans-Oxiana, Khurasan and 
parts. of I.ran were being ruled by the Samanids who were Iranians 
by descent. The Samanids had to battle continually with the non­
M uslim 1urkish tribesmen on their northern and eastern frontiers. 
It w~s during this struggle that a new type_of soldier, the ghazi, w~s 
born. The battle against the Turks, lll9S! gf whom WQrs_hipp_ed_th~ 
forces of nature and were heathens in the eyes of the Muslims, was a 
struggle for religion as well as for the safety of the state. Hence, the 
ghazi was as much a missionary as a fighter. He acted as a loo~e 
auxiliary of the regular armies, a_nd made up for his pay by plunder. 
ltwas the resourcefulness oftheghazi and his willmgness to undergo 
great privations for the sake of the cause which enabled these infant 
Muslim states to hold their own against the heathen Turks. In course 
of time, many Turks became Muslims, but the struggle against 
renewed incursions of the non-Muslim Turkish tribes continued. The 
Islamized Turkish tribes were to emerge as the greatest defenders 
Tiu Age of Conflict 59 
and crusaders of Islam. But the love of plunder went side by side 
with defence of Islam. 
Among the Samanid governors was a Turkish slave, Alp-tigin, 
who, in course of time, established an independent kingdom with its 
capital at -Ghazni. The· ~manid kingdom soon ended, and the 
Ghaznavids took over the task of defending the Islamic lands from 
the Central Asian tribesmen. 
It was in this context that Mahmud ascended the throne (998-
1030) at Ghazni. Mahmud is considered a hero oflslam by medieval 
Muslim historians because of his stout defence against the Central___ 
Asian Turkish tribal invaders. The ghazi spirit, therefore, further 
increased during his reign. Secondly, Mahmud was closely associated 
with the renaissance of the Iranian spirit which grew rapidly during 
this period. The proud Iranians had never accepted the J\rahic 
language and culture. The Samanid state had also encouraged the 
Persian language and literature. A high watermark in the Iranian 
renaissaritewas reached with Firdausi's Shah Namah. Firdausi was 
the poet laureate at the court of Mahmud. He transported the struggle 
between Iran and Turan to mythical times, and glorified the ancient 
. Iranian heroes. There was a resurgence of Iranian patriotism, and 
Persian language and culture became the language and· culture of 
the Ghaznavid empire, so much so that Mahmud himself claimed 
descent from the legendary Iranian king, AfrasiyaKThus, the Turks 
became not only Islamized but Persianized. It was this c_µlture that 
they were to bring with them to India two centuries later. 
While Mahmud played an important role in the defence of the 
Islamic states against the Turkish tribes and in the Iranian cultural 
renaissance, in India his memory is only that of a plunderer and a 
destroyer of temples. Mahmud is said to have made seventee\raids 
into India. The initial raids were directed against the Hindushahi 
rulers who at the time held Peshawar and the Punjab. Their capital· 
was at Udbhanda or Waihind (Peshawar). The Hindushahi rulers/ 
had been quick to see the danger to them of the rise of an agg~es~ive,/ 
expansionist state on their southwestern border. The .Hindushaqi 
ruler, J ayapala had', in alliance with the displaced Samanid govern-bi· 
ofGhazni, the Bhatti ruler of the area around Multan, and the amir 
. ,, -..: / 
of Multan, invaded Ghazni. But he had to suffer a defeat and the 
Page 4


FIVE 
The Age of Conflict 
(Circa 1000-1200) 
The period from 1000 ·to 1200 saw rapid changes both in West and 
Central Asia, and in north India. It were these developments which 
led to the incursion of the Turks into northern India leading to their 
. rule towards the end of the period. 
By the end of the ninth century, the Abbasid caliphate was in 
decline. Its place was taken by a series .of states ruled by Islamized 
Turks. The Turks had entered the Abbasid empire duringthe ninth 
centµry as palace-guards atid.qiercen:iry soldiers. Soon they emerged 
as the king-makers. As the power of the central government declined, 
provincial governors started assuming independent status, though 
for sometime the fiction of unity was kept up by the. caliph formally 
granting the title of amfr-ul-umra (Commander of Co~manders) 
on generals who were able to carve out a separate spheres of authority. 
These new rulers assumed the title of 'amir' at.first, and of 'sultan' 
later on. 
The continuous incursion of the Turkish tribesmen from Central 
Asia, the mercenary character of the Turkish soldiers who· were 
prepared to switch loyalties and abandon an unsucc,essful ruler 
without much thought, the strife between different Muslim sects~ 
and between different regi.ons made the period a restless one. Empires 
and states rose and fell in rapid successi~n. In this situation, only a 
. bold warrior and leader of men, a person who was as adept in warfare 
as in withstanding intrigues could come to the surface. 
. The Turkish tribesmen brought with them the habit of ruthless 
plunder. Their main mode of warfare consisted of rapid advance and 
retreat, lightning raids, and attacking any loose body of stragglers. 
They could do this because of the excellent quality of their horses as 
also their hardihood so that they could cover incredible distances on 
horseback. 
58 A HIS,.i>RY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA 
Meanwhile, the break-up of the Gurjara-Pratihara empire led to 
a phase of political uncertainty in north India, and a new phase of 
struggle for domination. As a result, little attention was paid to the 
emergence of aggressive, expansionist Turkish states on the 
northwestern border oflndia and in West Asia. 
Kabul, Qandahar, and its neighbouring area to the south called 
Zabul or Zamindaw~r, were c~nsidered parts of al-Hind or lnqia till 
the end of the ninth century. There were many· Buddhist and Hindu 
shrines in the area, the most important being the 53.5 m colossal 
statue of Buddha at Bamiyan, with caves for residence of a thousand 
monks. The area upto the river Oxus was ruled by many dynasties, 
some of them claiming descent from Kanishka. These kingdoms, 
--------baEk~El-by-a-m-i~-ed-pepu-1-atio~f--leeal-tribes-,Hu·nas,---T-urks,-exi-led 
Iranians and Indians (such as Bhati Rajputs} offered stiff resistance 
to the Arab effort to enter the area for tribute, plunder and slaves; 
Consequently, there was continuous skirmishing on both_ sides of 
the border. 
THE GHAZNAVIDS 
Towards the end of the ninth century, Trans-Oxiana, Khurasan and 
parts. of I.ran were being ruled by the Samanids who were Iranians 
by descent. The Samanids had to battle continually with the non­
M uslim 1urkish tribesmen on their northern and eastern frontiers. 
It w~s during this struggle that a new type_of soldier, the ghazi, w~s 
born. The battle against the Turks, lll9S! gf whom WQrs_hipp_ed_th~ 
forces of nature and were heathens in the eyes of the Muslims, was a 
struggle for religion as well as for the safety of the state. Hence, the 
ghazi was as much a missionary as a fighter. He acted as a loo~e 
auxiliary of the regular armies, a_nd made up for his pay by plunder. 
ltwas the resourcefulness oftheghazi and his willmgness to undergo 
great privations for the sake of the cause which enabled these infant 
Muslim states to hold their own against the heathen Turks. In course 
of time, many Turks became Muslims, but the struggle against 
renewed incursions of the non-Muslim Turkish tribes continued. The 
Islamized Turkish tribes were to emerge as the greatest defenders 
Tiu Age of Conflict 59 
and crusaders of Islam. But the love of plunder went side by side 
with defence of Islam. 
Among the Samanid governors was a Turkish slave, Alp-tigin, 
who, in course of time, established an independent kingdom with its 
capital at -Ghazni. The· ~manid kingdom soon ended, and the 
Ghaznavids took over the task of defending the Islamic lands from 
the Central Asian tribesmen. 
It was in this context that Mahmud ascended the throne (998-
1030) at Ghazni. Mahmud is considered a hero oflslam by medieval 
Muslim historians because of his stout defence against the Central___ 
Asian Turkish tribal invaders. The ghazi spirit, therefore, further 
increased during his reign. Secondly, Mahmud was closely associated 
with the renaissance of the Iranian spirit which grew rapidly during 
this period. The proud Iranians had never accepted the J\rahic 
language and culture. The Samanid state had also encouraged the 
Persian language and literature. A high watermark in the Iranian 
renaissaritewas reached with Firdausi's Shah Namah. Firdausi was 
the poet laureate at the court of Mahmud. He transported the struggle 
between Iran and Turan to mythical times, and glorified the ancient 
. Iranian heroes. There was a resurgence of Iranian patriotism, and 
Persian language and culture became the language and· culture of 
the Ghaznavid empire, so much so that Mahmud himself claimed 
descent from the legendary Iranian king, AfrasiyaKThus, the Turks 
became not only Islamized but Persianized. It was this c_µlture that 
they were to bring with them to India two centuries later. 
While Mahmud played an important role in the defence of the 
Islamic states against the Turkish tribes and in the Iranian cultural 
renaissance, in India his memory is only that of a plunderer and a 
destroyer of temples. Mahmud is said to have made seventee\raids 
into India. The initial raids were directed against the Hindushahi 
rulers who at the time held Peshawar and the Punjab. Their capital· 
was at Udbhanda or Waihind (Peshawar). The Hindushahi rulers/ 
had been quick to see the danger to them of the rise of an agg~es~ive,/ 
expansionist state on their southwestern border. The .Hindushaqi 
ruler, J ayapala had', in alliance with the displaced Samanid govern-bi· 
ofGhazni, the Bhatti ruler of the area around Multan, and the amir 
. ,, -..: / 
of Multan, invaded Ghazni. But he had to suffer a defeat and the 
60 A HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA 
coalition built by him collapsed. In retaliation, the Ghaznavid ruler 
of the times laid waste th~ area upto Kabul and Jalalabad. 
In about 990-91, under Sabuk-tigin, the Shahis suffered a serious 
defeat. Following this, the provinces of Kabul and J alalabad were 
annexed to Ghazni. As a prince, Mahmud had taken part in these 
battles. After his accessjgn to the throne (AD 998), he resumed the 
offensive against the Sh~his. The Shahi ruler, Jayapala, had, in the 
meantime, strengthen,~d his position by bringing Lohavar (Lahore) 
under his control. Thus, the Shahi rule extended from Peshawarto 
Punjab. 
In a furious battle near Peshawar in 1001, Jayapala was again 
. defeated. Mahmud advanced to the Shahi capital, and thoroughly 
·ravaged it. Peace was made by ceding the territory west of th~ II}dus 
~fimud~Soon after, Jayapala C{ied and was succeeded by his son, 
An,andpala. According to spme later accounts, Jayapala had entered 
a.funeral pyre following his defeat because he felt he had di:igraced 
himself The story that he had been taken prisoner by Mahmud and 
then released seems doubtful. 
Despite these setbacks, the Shahis were still strong enough to offer 
serious resistance to Ma~r.nud's efforts to penetrate in~o the Punjab. · 
Mahmud also had to counter the attacks of non-Mµshm Turks from 
Central Asia. However, in a decisive battle near t}ie .Indus in 1009,: 
Anandpala was defeated and Mahmud devastated his new capital, 
Nandana, in_ the Salt Ranges, and overran his fort called Nagarkot 
(wrongly confused with Nagarkot in Himachal which Mahmud 
never reached). Anandpal was allowed for some time to rule from 
-Lahore as a feudatory. But in 1015, Mahmud advanced upto Lahore, 
plundered it, and ousted Anandpal. Soon, Ghazanvid territories 
extended upto the river Jhelum. Earlier, the Muslim kingdom of 
Multan had also.been overrun. However, an attack on Kashmir by 
.Mahmud in I 015 was foiled due to weather conditions. 
Thus, the struggle against the Shahis was a prolonged one, and 
the Shahis put up stout resistance. In this struggle, the Shahis were 
supported only by the Muslim niler of Multan who had been 
.harrassed by slave taking raids from Ghazni, and ,belonged to a sect 
which . Mahmud considered heretical, and hence an enemy. It is 
noteworthy that apparently none of the Raj put rulers came to the aid 
Page 5


FIVE 
The Age of Conflict 
(Circa 1000-1200) 
The period from 1000 ·to 1200 saw rapid changes both in West and 
Central Asia, and in north India. It were these developments which 
led to the incursion of the Turks into northern India leading to their 
. rule towards the end of the period. 
By the end of the ninth century, the Abbasid caliphate was in 
decline. Its place was taken by a series .of states ruled by Islamized 
Turks. The Turks had entered the Abbasid empire duringthe ninth 
centµry as palace-guards atid.qiercen:iry soldiers. Soon they emerged 
as the king-makers. As the power of the central government declined, 
provincial governors started assuming independent status, though 
for sometime the fiction of unity was kept up by the. caliph formally 
granting the title of amfr-ul-umra (Commander of Co~manders) 
on generals who were able to carve out a separate spheres of authority. 
These new rulers assumed the title of 'amir' at.first, and of 'sultan' 
later on. 
The continuous incursion of the Turkish tribesmen from Central 
Asia, the mercenary character of the Turkish soldiers who· were 
prepared to switch loyalties and abandon an unsucc,essful ruler 
without much thought, the strife between different Muslim sects~ 
and between different regi.ons made the period a restless one. Empires 
and states rose and fell in rapid successi~n. In this situation, only a 
. bold warrior and leader of men, a person who was as adept in warfare 
as in withstanding intrigues could come to the surface. 
. The Turkish tribesmen brought with them the habit of ruthless 
plunder. Their main mode of warfare consisted of rapid advance and 
retreat, lightning raids, and attacking any loose body of stragglers. 
They could do this because of the excellent quality of their horses as 
also their hardihood so that they could cover incredible distances on 
horseback. 
58 A HIS,.i>RY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA 
Meanwhile, the break-up of the Gurjara-Pratihara empire led to 
a phase of political uncertainty in north India, and a new phase of 
struggle for domination. As a result, little attention was paid to the 
emergence of aggressive, expansionist Turkish states on the 
northwestern border oflndia and in West Asia. 
Kabul, Qandahar, and its neighbouring area to the south called 
Zabul or Zamindaw~r, were c~nsidered parts of al-Hind or lnqia till 
the end of the ninth century. There were many· Buddhist and Hindu 
shrines in the area, the most important being the 53.5 m colossal 
statue of Buddha at Bamiyan, with caves for residence of a thousand 
monks. The area upto the river Oxus was ruled by many dynasties, 
some of them claiming descent from Kanishka. These kingdoms, 
--------baEk~El-by-a-m-i~-ed-pepu-1-atio~f--leeal-tribes-,Hu·nas,---T-urks,-exi-led 
Iranians and Indians (such as Bhati Rajputs} offered stiff resistance 
to the Arab effort to enter the area for tribute, plunder and slaves; 
Consequently, there was continuous skirmishing on both_ sides of 
the border. 
THE GHAZNAVIDS 
Towards the end of the ninth century, Trans-Oxiana, Khurasan and 
parts. of I.ran were being ruled by the Samanids who were Iranians 
by descent. The Samanids had to battle continually with the non­
M uslim 1urkish tribesmen on their northern and eastern frontiers. 
It w~s during this struggle that a new type_of soldier, the ghazi, w~s 
born. The battle against the Turks, lll9S! gf whom WQrs_hipp_ed_th~ 
forces of nature and were heathens in the eyes of the Muslims, was a 
struggle for religion as well as for the safety of the state. Hence, the 
ghazi was as much a missionary as a fighter. He acted as a loo~e 
auxiliary of the regular armies, a_nd made up for his pay by plunder. 
ltwas the resourcefulness oftheghazi and his willmgness to undergo 
great privations for the sake of the cause which enabled these infant 
Muslim states to hold their own against the heathen Turks. In course 
of time, many Turks became Muslims, but the struggle against 
renewed incursions of the non-Muslim Turkish tribes continued. The 
Islamized Turkish tribes were to emerge as the greatest defenders 
Tiu Age of Conflict 59 
and crusaders of Islam. But the love of plunder went side by side 
with defence of Islam. 
Among the Samanid governors was a Turkish slave, Alp-tigin, 
who, in course of time, established an independent kingdom with its 
capital at -Ghazni. The· ~manid kingdom soon ended, and the 
Ghaznavids took over the task of defending the Islamic lands from 
the Central Asian tribesmen. 
It was in this context that Mahmud ascended the throne (998-
1030) at Ghazni. Mahmud is considered a hero oflslam by medieval 
Muslim historians because of his stout defence against the Central___ 
Asian Turkish tribal invaders. The ghazi spirit, therefore, further 
increased during his reign. Secondly, Mahmud was closely associated 
with the renaissance of the Iranian spirit which grew rapidly during 
this period. The proud Iranians had never accepted the J\rahic 
language and culture. The Samanid state had also encouraged the 
Persian language and literature. A high watermark in the Iranian 
renaissaritewas reached with Firdausi's Shah Namah. Firdausi was 
the poet laureate at the court of Mahmud. He transported the struggle 
between Iran and Turan to mythical times, and glorified the ancient 
. Iranian heroes. There was a resurgence of Iranian patriotism, and 
Persian language and culture became the language and· culture of 
the Ghaznavid empire, so much so that Mahmud himself claimed 
descent from the legendary Iranian king, AfrasiyaKThus, the Turks 
became not only Islamized but Persianized. It was this c_µlture that 
they were to bring with them to India two centuries later. 
While Mahmud played an important role in the defence of the 
Islamic states against the Turkish tribes and in the Iranian cultural 
renaissance, in India his memory is only that of a plunderer and a 
destroyer of temples. Mahmud is said to have made seventee\raids 
into India. The initial raids were directed against the Hindushahi 
rulers who at the time held Peshawar and the Punjab. Their capital· 
was at Udbhanda or Waihind (Peshawar). The Hindushahi rulers/ 
had been quick to see the danger to them of the rise of an agg~es~ive,/ 
expansionist state on their southwestern border. The .Hindushaqi 
ruler, J ayapala had', in alliance with the displaced Samanid govern-bi· 
ofGhazni, the Bhatti ruler of the area around Multan, and the amir 
. ,, -..: / 
of Multan, invaded Ghazni. But he had to suffer a defeat and the 
60 A HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA 
coalition built by him collapsed. In retaliation, the Ghaznavid ruler 
of the times laid waste th~ area upto Kabul and Jalalabad. 
In about 990-91, under Sabuk-tigin, the Shahis suffered a serious 
defeat. Following this, the provinces of Kabul and J alalabad were 
annexed to Ghazni. As a prince, Mahmud had taken part in these 
battles. After his accessjgn to the throne (AD 998), he resumed the 
offensive against the Sh~his. The Shahi ruler, Jayapala, had, in the 
meantime, strengthen,~d his position by bringing Lohavar (Lahore) 
under his control. Thus, the Shahi rule extended from Peshawarto 
Punjab. 
In a furious battle near Peshawar in 1001, Jayapala was again 
. defeated. Mahmud advanced to the Shahi capital, and thoroughly 
·ravaged it. Peace was made by ceding the territory west of th~ II}dus 
~fimud~Soon after, Jayapala C{ied and was succeeded by his son, 
An,andpala. According to spme later accounts, Jayapala had entered 
a.funeral pyre following his defeat because he felt he had di:igraced 
himself The story that he had been taken prisoner by Mahmud and 
then released seems doubtful. 
Despite these setbacks, the Shahis were still strong enough to offer 
serious resistance to Ma~r.nud's efforts to penetrate in~o the Punjab. · 
Mahmud also had to counter the attacks of non-Mµshm Turks from 
Central Asia. However, in a decisive battle near t}ie .Indus in 1009,: 
Anandpala was defeated and Mahmud devastated his new capital, 
Nandana, in_ the Salt Ranges, and overran his fort called Nagarkot 
(wrongly confused with Nagarkot in Himachal which Mahmud 
never reached). Anandpal was allowed for some time to rule from 
-Lahore as a feudatory. But in 1015, Mahmud advanced upto Lahore, 
plundered it, and ousted Anandpal. Soon, Ghazanvid territories 
extended upto the river Jhelum. Earlier, the Muslim kingdom of 
Multan had also.been overrun. However, an attack on Kashmir by 
.Mahmud in I 015 was foiled due to weather conditions. 
Thus, the struggle against the Shahis was a prolonged one, and 
the Shahis put up stout resistance. In this struggle, the Shahis were 
supported only by the Muslim niler of Multan who had been 
.harrassed by slave taking raids from Ghazni, and ,belonged to a sect 
which . Mahmud considered heretical, and hence an enemy. It is 
noteworthy that apparently none of the Raj put rulers came to the aid 
The Age of Conflict 61 
of the Shahis, although in orde.r to exaggerate the scale of Mahmud's 
victory, the seventeenth century historian, Ferishta, mentions that 
mai:iy Raj puts rulers, including those from Delhi, Ajmer and Kanauj 
aided J ayapala in 1001. However, Aj mer had not been founded by 
then, and Delhi (Dhillika) was a small state. Likewise, the Gurjara­
Pratihatas of Kanauj whose sway had extended upon Thanesar at 
one time, were in a much weakened condition. Thus, the Shahis 
fought virtually alone . 
. By 1015, Mahmud was poised for an attack on the Indo-Gangedc 
valley. During the next half a dozen years, Mahmud launched a series 
of expeditions into the lndo-Gangetic plains. These raids were aimed 
at plundering the rich temples and the towns which had amasse~ 
wealth over generations. The plundering of this wealth also enabled 
him to contin~e his struggle against his enemies in Central Asia. He 
also did not want to give t~me to the princes in India to regroup, and 
to combine against him. Mahmud's raids into India alternated with 
battles in Central Asia. For his plundering raids into India the ghazis 
came handy to him. Mahmud also posed as a great but shikan ·or 
'destroyer of the images' for the glory of Islam. From the Punjab, 
Mahmud raided Thanesar the old capital ofHarsha .. His most daring 
raids, however, were against Kanauj in 1018, and against Somnath 
in Gujarati~ 1025. In the campaign against Kanauj, he sacked and 
plundered both Mathura and Kanauj. The followingyeCJ,r, he invaded 
Kalin jar in Bundelkhand, and returned loaded with fabulous riches. 
He was able to do all this with impunity due to the fact that no strong 
state existed in north India at that time. No attempt was made by 
Mahmud to annex any of these states. · 
Between 1020, and 1025, Mahmud was engaged in Central Asian 
affairs. In 1025, he made a plan for raiding Somnath which had a 
fabulously rich temple and attracted lakhs of pilgrims. It was also a 
· rich port .. The objective was also to create a sense of awe and shock 
among the Rajputs because he marched via Multan and Jaisalmer 
with a regular ca.valry of 30,000. Meeting light opposition on the 
way, he reached Somnath. The commander of the city fled at· his 
approach, bunhe'citizens put up a stout resistance. Mahmud broke 
the Sivalingam, and ordered parts of it brought back with him to 
Ghazni. Evading the attempt of some Raj put rulers to block him on