Old NCERT Textbook (Satish Chandra): The Chola Empire - History for UPSC CSE

 Page 1


THREE
South India: The Chola Empire 
(900-1200)
Powerful kingdoms had risen in south India during the sixth and eighth
centuries. The most important among them were the Pallavas and the
Pandyas who dominated modern Tamil Nadu, the Cheras of modern Kerala,
and the Chalukyas who dominated the Maharashtra area or the Deccan. It
was the Chalukyan king, Pulakesin II, who had defeated Harsha and not
allowed him to expand his kingdom towards the Deccan. Some of these
kingdoms, such as the Pallava and Pandya, had strong navies. They also
played an important role in strengthening economic, religious and cultural
relations with the countries of Southeast Asia, and with China. Their navies
enabled them to invade and rule some parts of Sri Lanka for some time.
The Chola empire which arose in the ninth century brought under its
concrol a large part of the peninsula. The Cholas developed a powerful navy
which enabled them to conquer Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Its impact was
felt even by the countries of Southeast Asia. The Chola empire may be said to
mark a climax in south Indian history.
THE RISE OF THE CHOLA EMPIRE
The founder of the Chola empire was Vijayalaya, who was at first a feudatory
of the Pallavas. He captured Tanjore in AD 850. And by the end of the ninth
century, the Cholas had defeated both the Pallavas of Kanchi
(Tondaimandalam) and weakened the Pandyas, bringing the southern Tamil
country under their control. But the Cholas were hard put to defend their
position against the Rashtrakutas. As we have noted in a previous chapter,
Krishna III defeated the Chola king, and annexed the northern part of the
Chola empire. This was a serious set-back to the Cholas, but they rapidly
Page 2


THREE
South India: The Chola Empire 
(900-1200)
Powerful kingdoms had risen in south India during the sixth and eighth
centuries. The most important among them were the Pallavas and the
Pandyas who dominated modern Tamil Nadu, the Cheras of modern Kerala,
and the Chalukyas who dominated the Maharashtra area or the Deccan. It
was the Chalukyan king, Pulakesin II, who had defeated Harsha and not
allowed him to expand his kingdom towards the Deccan. Some of these
kingdoms, such as the Pallava and Pandya, had strong navies. They also
played an important role in strengthening economic, religious and cultural
relations with the countries of Southeast Asia, and with China. Their navies
enabled them to invade and rule some parts of Sri Lanka for some time.
The Chola empire which arose in the ninth century brought under its
concrol a large part of the peninsula. The Cholas developed a powerful navy
which enabled them to conquer Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Its impact was
felt even by the countries of Southeast Asia. The Chola empire may be said to
mark a climax in south Indian history.
THE RISE OF THE CHOLA EMPIRE
The founder of the Chola empire was Vijayalaya, who was at first a feudatory
of the Pallavas. He captured Tanjore in AD 850. And by the end of the ninth
century, the Cholas had defeated both the Pallavas of Kanchi
(Tondaimandalam) and weakened the Pandyas, bringing the southern Tamil
country under their control. But the Cholas were hard put to defend their
position against the Rashtrakutas. As we have noted in a previous chapter,
Krishna III defeated the Chola king, and annexed the northern part of the
Chola empire. This was a serious set-back to the Cholas, but they rapidly
recovered, particularly after the death of Krishna III in 965 and the downfall
of the Rashtrakuta empire.
AGE OF RAJARAJA AND RAJENDRA I
The greatest Chola rulers were Rajaraja (985–1014) and his son Rajendra I
(1014–1044). Rajaraja destroyed the Chera navy at Trivandrum, and attacked
Quilon. He then conquered Madurai and captured the Pandyan king. He also
invaded Sri Lanka and annexed its northern part to his empire. These moves
were partly motivated by his desire to bring the trade with the Southeast
Asian countries under his control. The Coromandel coast and Malabar were
the centres for India’s trade with the countries of Southeast Asia. One of his
naval exploits was the conquest of the Maldives. Rajaraja, annexed the
northwestern parts of the Ganga kingdom in Karnataka, and overran Vengi.
Rajendra had been appointed heir apparent in his father’s life-time, and
had considerable experience in administration and warfare before his
accession to the throne. He carried forward the annexationist policy of
Rajaraja by completely overrunning the Pandya and Chera countries and
including them in his empire. The conquest of Sri Lanka was also completed,
with the crown and royal insignia of the king and the queen of Sri Lanka
being captured in a battle. Sri Lanka was not able to free herself from the
Chola control for another 50 years.
Rajaraja and Rajendra I marked their victories by erecting a number of Siva
and Vishnu temples at various places. The most famous of these was the
Brihadishwara temple at Tanjore which was completed in 1010. The Chola
rulers adopted the practice of having inscriptions written on the walls of these
temples, giving a historical narrative of their victories. That is why we know a
great deal more about the Cholas that their predecessors.
One of the most remarkable exploits in the reign of Rajendra I was the
march across Kalinga to Bengal in which the Chola armies crossed the river
Ganga, and defeated two local kings. This expedition, which was led by a
Chola general, took place in 1022 and followed in reverse the same route
which the great conqueror Samudragupta had followed. To commemorate
this occasion, Rajendra I assumed the title of Gangaikondachola (‘the Chola
Page 3


THREE
South India: The Chola Empire 
(900-1200)
Powerful kingdoms had risen in south India during the sixth and eighth
centuries. The most important among them were the Pallavas and the
Pandyas who dominated modern Tamil Nadu, the Cheras of modern Kerala,
and the Chalukyas who dominated the Maharashtra area or the Deccan. It
was the Chalukyan king, Pulakesin II, who had defeated Harsha and not
allowed him to expand his kingdom towards the Deccan. Some of these
kingdoms, such as the Pallava and Pandya, had strong navies. They also
played an important role in strengthening economic, religious and cultural
relations with the countries of Southeast Asia, and with China. Their navies
enabled them to invade and rule some parts of Sri Lanka for some time.
The Chola empire which arose in the ninth century brought under its
concrol a large part of the peninsula. The Cholas developed a powerful navy
which enabled them to conquer Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Its impact was
felt even by the countries of Southeast Asia. The Chola empire may be said to
mark a climax in south Indian history.
THE RISE OF THE CHOLA EMPIRE
The founder of the Chola empire was Vijayalaya, who was at first a feudatory
of the Pallavas. He captured Tanjore in AD 850. And by the end of the ninth
century, the Cholas had defeated both the Pallavas of Kanchi
(Tondaimandalam) and weakened the Pandyas, bringing the southern Tamil
country under their control. But the Cholas were hard put to defend their
position against the Rashtrakutas. As we have noted in a previous chapter,
Krishna III defeated the Chola king, and annexed the northern part of the
Chola empire. This was a serious set-back to the Cholas, but they rapidly
recovered, particularly after the death of Krishna III in 965 and the downfall
of the Rashtrakuta empire.
AGE OF RAJARAJA AND RAJENDRA I
The greatest Chola rulers were Rajaraja (985–1014) and his son Rajendra I
(1014–1044). Rajaraja destroyed the Chera navy at Trivandrum, and attacked
Quilon. He then conquered Madurai and captured the Pandyan king. He also
invaded Sri Lanka and annexed its northern part to his empire. These moves
were partly motivated by his desire to bring the trade with the Southeast
Asian countries under his control. The Coromandel coast and Malabar were
the centres for India’s trade with the countries of Southeast Asia. One of his
naval exploits was the conquest of the Maldives. Rajaraja, annexed the
northwestern parts of the Ganga kingdom in Karnataka, and overran Vengi.
Rajendra had been appointed heir apparent in his father’s life-time, and
had considerable experience in administration and warfare before his
accession to the throne. He carried forward the annexationist policy of
Rajaraja by completely overrunning the Pandya and Chera countries and
including them in his empire. The conquest of Sri Lanka was also completed,
with the crown and royal insignia of the king and the queen of Sri Lanka
being captured in a battle. Sri Lanka was not able to free herself from the
Chola control for another 50 years.
Rajaraja and Rajendra I marked their victories by erecting a number of Siva
and Vishnu temples at various places. The most famous of these was the
Brihadishwara temple at Tanjore which was completed in 1010. The Chola
rulers adopted the practice of having inscriptions written on the walls of these
temples, giving a historical narrative of their victories. That is why we know a
great deal more about the Cholas that their predecessors.
One of the most remarkable exploits in the reign of Rajendra I was the
march across Kalinga to Bengal in which the Chola armies crossed the river
Ganga, and defeated two local kings. This expedition, which was led by a
Chola general, took place in 1022 and followed in reverse the same route
which the great conqueror Samudragupta had followed. To commemorate
this occasion, Rajendra I assumed the title of Gangaikondachola (‘the Chola
who conquered the Ganga’). He built a new capital near the mouth of the
Kaveri river and called it Gangaikondacholapuram (‘the city of the Chola who
conquered the Ganga’).
Page 4


THREE
South India: The Chola Empire 
(900-1200)
Powerful kingdoms had risen in south India during the sixth and eighth
centuries. The most important among them were the Pallavas and the
Pandyas who dominated modern Tamil Nadu, the Cheras of modern Kerala,
and the Chalukyas who dominated the Maharashtra area or the Deccan. It
was the Chalukyan king, Pulakesin II, who had defeated Harsha and not
allowed him to expand his kingdom towards the Deccan. Some of these
kingdoms, such as the Pallava and Pandya, had strong navies. They also
played an important role in strengthening economic, religious and cultural
relations with the countries of Southeast Asia, and with China. Their navies
enabled them to invade and rule some parts of Sri Lanka for some time.
The Chola empire which arose in the ninth century brought under its
concrol a large part of the peninsula. The Cholas developed a powerful navy
which enabled them to conquer Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Its impact was
felt even by the countries of Southeast Asia. The Chola empire may be said to
mark a climax in south Indian history.
THE RISE OF THE CHOLA EMPIRE
The founder of the Chola empire was Vijayalaya, who was at first a feudatory
of the Pallavas. He captured Tanjore in AD 850. And by the end of the ninth
century, the Cholas had defeated both the Pallavas of Kanchi
(Tondaimandalam) and weakened the Pandyas, bringing the southern Tamil
country under their control. But the Cholas were hard put to defend their
position against the Rashtrakutas. As we have noted in a previous chapter,
Krishna III defeated the Chola king, and annexed the northern part of the
Chola empire. This was a serious set-back to the Cholas, but they rapidly
recovered, particularly after the death of Krishna III in 965 and the downfall
of the Rashtrakuta empire.
AGE OF RAJARAJA AND RAJENDRA I
The greatest Chola rulers were Rajaraja (985–1014) and his son Rajendra I
(1014–1044). Rajaraja destroyed the Chera navy at Trivandrum, and attacked
Quilon. He then conquered Madurai and captured the Pandyan king. He also
invaded Sri Lanka and annexed its northern part to his empire. These moves
were partly motivated by his desire to bring the trade with the Southeast
Asian countries under his control. The Coromandel coast and Malabar were
the centres for India’s trade with the countries of Southeast Asia. One of his
naval exploits was the conquest of the Maldives. Rajaraja, annexed the
northwestern parts of the Ganga kingdom in Karnataka, and overran Vengi.
Rajendra had been appointed heir apparent in his father’s life-time, and
had considerable experience in administration and warfare before his
accession to the throne. He carried forward the annexationist policy of
Rajaraja by completely overrunning the Pandya and Chera countries and
including them in his empire. The conquest of Sri Lanka was also completed,
with the crown and royal insignia of the king and the queen of Sri Lanka
being captured in a battle. Sri Lanka was not able to free herself from the
Chola control for another 50 years.
Rajaraja and Rajendra I marked their victories by erecting a number of Siva
and Vishnu temples at various places. The most famous of these was the
Brihadishwara temple at Tanjore which was completed in 1010. The Chola
rulers adopted the practice of having inscriptions written on the walls of these
temples, giving a historical narrative of their victories. That is why we know a
great deal more about the Cholas that their predecessors.
One of the most remarkable exploits in the reign of Rajendra I was the
march across Kalinga to Bengal in which the Chola armies crossed the river
Ganga, and defeated two local kings. This expedition, which was led by a
Chola general, took place in 1022 and followed in reverse the same route
which the great conqueror Samudragupta had followed. To commemorate
this occasion, Rajendra I assumed the title of Gangaikondachola (‘the Chola
who conquered the Ganga’). He built a new capital near the mouth of the
Kaveri river and called it Gangaikondacholapuram (‘the city of the Chola who
conquered the Ganga’).
An even more remarkable exploit in the time of Rajendra I were the naval
expeditions against the revived Sri Vijaya empire. The Sri Vijaya empire,
which had been revived in the 10th century, extended over the Malay
peninsula, Sumatra, Java and the neighbouring islands, and controlled the
overseas trade route to China. The rulers of the Sailendra dynasty of the Sri
Vijaya kingdom were Buddhists and had cordial relations with the Cholas.
The Sailendra ruler had built a Buddhist monastery at Nagapatnam and, at
his instance, Rajendra I had endowed a village for its upkeep. The cause of the
breach between the two apparently was the Chola eagerness to remove
obstacles to Indian traders, and to expand trade with China. The expeditions
Page 5


THREE
South India: The Chola Empire 
(900-1200)
Powerful kingdoms had risen in south India during the sixth and eighth
centuries. The most important among them were the Pallavas and the
Pandyas who dominated modern Tamil Nadu, the Cheras of modern Kerala,
and the Chalukyas who dominated the Maharashtra area or the Deccan. It
was the Chalukyan king, Pulakesin II, who had defeated Harsha and not
allowed him to expand his kingdom towards the Deccan. Some of these
kingdoms, such as the Pallava and Pandya, had strong navies. They also
played an important role in strengthening economic, religious and cultural
relations with the countries of Southeast Asia, and with China. Their navies
enabled them to invade and rule some parts of Sri Lanka for some time.
The Chola empire which arose in the ninth century brought under its
concrol a large part of the peninsula. The Cholas developed a powerful navy
which enabled them to conquer Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Its impact was
felt even by the countries of Southeast Asia. The Chola empire may be said to
mark a climax in south Indian history.
THE RISE OF THE CHOLA EMPIRE
The founder of the Chola empire was Vijayalaya, who was at first a feudatory
of the Pallavas. He captured Tanjore in AD 850. And by the end of the ninth
century, the Cholas had defeated both the Pallavas of Kanchi
(Tondaimandalam) and weakened the Pandyas, bringing the southern Tamil
country under their control. But the Cholas were hard put to defend their
position against the Rashtrakutas. As we have noted in a previous chapter,
Krishna III defeated the Chola king, and annexed the northern part of the
Chola empire. This was a serious set-back to the Cholas, but they rapidly
recovered, particularly after the death of Krishna III in 965 and the downfall
of the Rashtrakuta empire.
AGE OF RAJARAJA AND RAJENDRA I
The greatest Chola rulers were Rajaraja (985–1014) and his son Rajendra I
(1014–1044). Rajaraja destroyed the Chera navy at Trivandrum, and attacked
Quilon. He then conquered Madurai and captured the Pandyan king. He also
invaded Sri Lanka and annexed its northern part to his empire. These moves
were partly motivated by his desire to bring the trade with the Southeast
Asian countries under his control. The Coromandel coast and Malabar were
the centres for India’s trade with the countries of Southeast Asia. One of his
naval exploits was the conquest of the Maldives. Rajaraja, annexed the
northwestern parts of the Ganga kingdom in Karnataka, and overran Vengi.
Rajendra had been appointed heir apparent in his father’s life-time, and
had considerable experience in administration and warfare before his
accession to the throne. He carried forward the annexationist policy of
Rajaraja by completely overrunning the Pandya and Chera countries and
including them in his empire. The conquest of Sri Lanka was also completed,
with the crown and royal insignia of the king and the queen of Sri Lanka
being captured in a battle. Sri Lanka was not able to free herself from the
Chola control for another 50 years.
Rajaraja and Rajendra I marked their victories by erecting a number of Siva
and Vishnu temples at various places. The most famous of these was the
Brihadishwara temple at Tanjore which was completed in 1010. The Chola
rulers adopted the practice of having inscriptions written on the walls of these
temples, giving a historical narrative of their victories. That is why we know a
great deal more about the Cholas that their predecessors.
One of the most remarkable exploits in the reign of Rajendra I was the
march across Kalinga to Bengal in which the Chola armies crossed the river
Ganga, and defeated two local kings. This expedition, which was led by a
Chola general, took place in 1022 and followed in reverse the same route
which the great conqueror Samudragupta had followed. To commemorate
this occasion, Rajendra I assumed the title of Gangaikondachola (‘the Chola
who conquered the Ganga’). He built a new capital near the mouth of the
Kaveri river and called it Gangaikondacholapuram (‘the city of the Chola who
conquered the Ganga’).
An even more remarkable exploit in the time of Rajendra I were the naval
expeditions against the revived Sri Vijaya empire. The Sri Vijaya empire,
which had been revived in the 10th century, extended over the Malay
peninsula, Sumatra, Java and the neighbouring islands, and controlled the
overseas trade route to China. The rulers of the Sailendra dynasty of the Sri
Vijaya kingdom were Buddhists and had cordial relations with the Cholas.
The Sailendra ruler had built a Buddhist monastery at Nagapatnam and, at
his instance, Rajendra I had endowed a village for its upkeep. The cause of the
breach between the two apparently was the Chola eagerness to remove
obstacles to Indian traders, and to expand trade with China. The expeditions
led to the conquest of Kadaram or Kedah and a number of other places in the
Malay peninsula and Sumatra. The Chola navy was the strongest in the area,
and for some time the Bay of Bengal was converted into a ‘Chola lake’.
The Chola rulers also sent a number of embassies to China. These were
partly diplomatic and partly commercial. Chola embassies reached China in
1016 and 1033. A Chola embassy of 70 merchants reached China in 1077 and,
according to a Chinese account, received ‘81,800 strings of copper-cash’, that
is, more than four lakhs of rupees in return for the articles of‘tribute’
comprising ‘glass-ware, camphor, brocades, rhinoceros horns, ivory, etc.’
Tribute was the word used by the Chinese for all articles brought for trade.
The Chola rulers fought constantly with the Chalukyas who had succeeded
the Rashtrakutas. These are called the later Chalukyas and their capital was at
Kalyani. The Cholas and the later Chalukyas clashed for the overlordship
ofVengi (Rayalaseema), the Tungabhadra doab, and the Ganga ruled country
in northwest Karnataka. Neither side was able to gain a decisive victory in this
contest and ultimately it exhausted both the kingdoms. It also appears that
the wars were becoming harsher during this time. The Chola rulers sacked
and plundered Chalukyan cities including Kalyani, and massacred the people,
including Brahmans and children. They adopted a similar policy in the
Pandya country, settling military colonies to overawe the population. They
destroyed Anuradhapura, the ancient capital of the rulers of Sri Lanka, and
treated their king and queen harshly. The se are blots in the history of the
Chola empire. However, once they had conquered a country, the Cholas tried
to set up a sound system of administration in it. One of the remarkable
features of the Chola administration was their encouragement to local self-
government in the villages all over their empire.
The Chola empire continued to flourish during the twelfth century, but it
declined during the early part of the thirteenth century. The later Chalukyan
empire in the Maharashtra area had also come to an end during the twelfth
century. The place of the Cholas was taken by the Pandyas and the Hoysalas
in the south, and the later Chalukyas were replaced by the Yadavas and the
Kakatiyas. All these states extended patronage to arts and architecture.
Unfortunately, they weakened themselves by continually fighting against each
other, sacking the towns and not even sparing the temples. Ultimately, they