Old NCERT Textbook (Satish Chandra): The Delhi Sultanate (Circa 1200-1400) - II | History for UPSC CSE PDF Download

 Page 1


SEVEN
The Delhi Sultanat—II (Circa 1200-1400)
THE KHALJIS AND THE TUGHLAQS.
After the death of Balban in 1286, there was again confusion in Delhi for
some time. Balban’s chosen successor, Prince Mahmud, had died earlier in a
battle with the Mongols. A second son, Bughra Khan, preferred to rule over
Bengal and Bihar although he was invited by the nobles at Delhi to assume
the throne. Hence, a grandson of Balban was installed in Delhi. But he was
too young and inexperienced to cope with the situation. There had been a
good deal of resentment and opposition at the attempt of the Turkish nobles
to monopolize high offices. Many non-Turks, such as the Khaljis, had come
to India at the time of the Ghurid invasion. They had never received sufficient
recognition in Delhi, and had to move to Bengal and Bihar for an opportunity
for advancement. They had also found employment as soldiers, many of them
being posted in the northwest to meet the Mongol challenge. In course of
time, many Indian Muslims had been admitted to the nobility. They also were
dissatisfied at being denied high officers, as may be inferred from the manner
in which Imaduddin Raihan was put up against Balban. Balban’s own
example of setting aside the sons of Nasiruddin Mahmud had demonstrated
that a successful general could ascend the throne by ousting the scions of an
established dynasty, provided he had sufficient support in the nobility and the
army.
THE KHALJIS (1290-1320)
For these reasons, a group of Khalji nobles led by Jalaluddin Khalji, who had
been the warden of the marches in the northwest and had fought many
successful engagements against the Mongols, overthrew the incompetent
successors of Balban in 1290. The Khalji rebellion was welcomed by the non-
Page 2


SEVEN
The Delhi Sultanat—II (Circa 1200-1400)
THE KHALJIS AND THE TUGHLAQS.
After the death of Balban in 1286, there was again confusion in Delhi for
some time. Balban’s chosen successor, Prince Mahmud, had died earlier in a
battle with the Mongols. A second son, Bughra Khan, preferred to rule over
Bengal and Bihar although he was invited by the nobles at Delhi to assume
the throne. Hence, a grandson of Balban was installed in Delhi. But he was
too young and inexperienced to cope with the situation. There had been a
good deal of resentment and opposition at the attempt of the Turkish nobles
to monopolize high offices. Many non-Turks, such as the Khaljis, had come
to India at the time of the Ghurid invasion. They had never received sufficient
recognition in Delhi, and had to move to Bengal and Bihar for an opportunity
for advancement. They had also found employment as soldiers, many of them
being posted in the northwest to meet the Mongol challenge. In course of
time, many Indian Muslims had been admitted to the nobility. They also were
dissatisfied at being denied high officers, as may be inferred from the manner
in which Imaduddin Raihan was put up against Balban. Balban’s own
example of setting aside the sons of Nasiruddin Mahmud had demonstrated
that a successful general could ascend the throne by ousting the scions of an
established dynasty, provided he had sufficient support in the nobility and the
army.
THE KHALJIS (1290-1320)
For these reasons, a group of Khalji nobles led by Jalaluddin Khalji, who had
been the warden of the marches in the northwest and had fought many
successful engagements against the Mongols, overthrew the incompetent
successors of Balban in 1290. The Khalji rebellion was welcomed by the non-
Turkish sections in the nobility. The Khaljis were of a mixed Turkish—
Afghan origin, did not exclude the Turks from high offices, but the rise of the
Khaljis to power ended the Turkish monopoly of high offices.
Jalaluddin Khalji ruled only for a brief period of six years. He tried to
mitigate some of the harsh aspects of Balban’s rule. He was the first ruler of
the Delhi Sultanat to clearly put forward the view that the state should be
based on the willing support of the governed, and that since the large majority
of the people in India were Hindus, the state in India could not be a truly
Islamic state. He also tried to gain the goodwill of the nobility by a policy of
tolerance and avoiding harsh punishments. However, many people, including
his supporters, considered this to be a weak policy which was not suited to the
times. The Delhi Sultanat faced numerous internal and external foes, and for
this reason there was a sense of insecurity. Jalaluddin’s policy was reversed by
Alauddin who awarded drastic punishments to all those who dared to oppose
him.
Alauddin Khalji (1296-1316) came to the throne by treacherously
murdering his uncle and father-in-law, Jalaluddin Khalji. As the governor of
Awadh, Alauddin had accumulated a vast treasure by invading Deogir in the
Deccan. Jalaluddin had gone to visit his nephew at Kara in the hope of getting
hold of this treasure. He had left most of his army behind and had crossed the
river Ganges with only a few followers so that his nephew might not take
fright and run away. After murdering his uncle, Alauddin won over most
ofthe nobles and soldiers to his side by a lavish use of gold. But for some time,
Alauddin had to face a series of rebellions—some by disgruntled nobles, and
some by Alauddin’s own relations. To overawe his opponents, Alauddin
Khalji adopted methods of utmost severity and ruthlessness. Most of the
nobles who had defected to him by the lure of gold were either killed or
dismissed and their properties confiscated. Severe punishments were given to
the rebellious members of his own family. He resorted to a wholesale
massacre of the Mongols, a couple of thousands of them having settled down
in Delhi after embracing Islam in the time of Jalaluddin. These new converts
had rebelled, demanding a larger share in the loot in Gujarat having
campaigned there. Alauddin gave harsh punishments even to the wives and
children of these rebels, a practice which, according to the historian Barani,
was a new one and was continued by his successors. Alauddin framed a series
Page 3


SEVEN
The Delhi Sultanat—II (Circa 1200-1400)
THE KHALJIS AND THE TUGHLAQS.
After the death of Balban in 1286, there was again confusion in Delhi for
some time. Balban’s chosen successor, Prince Mahmud, had died earlier in a
battle with the Mongols. A second son, Bughra Khan, preferred to rule over
Bengal and Bihar although he was invited by the nobles at Delhi to assume
the throne. Hence, a grandson of Balban was installed in Delhi. But he was
too young and inexperienced to cope with the situation. There had been a
good deal of resentment and opposition at the attempt of the Turkish nobles
to monopolize high offices. Many non-Turks, such as the Khaljis, had come
to India at the time of the Ghurid invasion. They had never received sufficient
recognition in Delhi, and had to move to Bengal and Bihar for an opportunity
for advancement. They had also found employment as soldiers, many of them
being posted in the northwest to meet the Mongol challenge. In course of
time, many Indian Muslims had been admitted to the nobility. They also were
dissatisfied at being denied high officers, as may be inferred from the manner
in which Imaduddin Raihan was put up against Balban. Balban’s own
example of setting aside the sons of Nasiruddin Mahmud had demonstrated
that a successful general could ascend the throne by ousting the scions of an
established dynasty, provided he had sufficient support in the nobility and the
army.
THE KHALJIS (1290-1320)
For these reasons, a group of Khalji nobles led by Jalaluddin Khalji, who had
been the warden of the marches in the northwest and had fought many
successful engagements against the Mongols, overthrew the incompetent
successors of Balban in 1290. The Khalji rebellion was welcomed by the non-
Turkish sections in the nobility. The Khaljis were of a mixed Turkish—
Afghan origin, did not exclude the Turks from high offices, but the rise of the
Khaljis to power ended the Turkish monopoly of high offices.
Jalaluddin Khalji ruled only for a brief period of six years. He tried to
mitigate some of the harsh aspects of Balban’s rule. He was the first ruler of
the Delhi Sultanat to clearly put forward the view that the state should be
based on the willing support of the governed, and that since the large majority
of the people in India were Hindus, the state in India could not be a truly
Islamic state. He also tried to gain the goodwill of the nobility by a policy of
tolerance and avoiding harsh punishments. However, many people, including
his supporters, considered this to be a weak policy which was not suited to the
times. The Delhi Sultanat faced numerous internal and external foes, and for
this reason there was a sense of insecurity. Jalaluddin’s policy was reversed by
Alauddin who awarded drastic punishments to all those who dared to oppose
him.
Alauddin Khalji (1296-1316) came to the throne by treacherously
murdering his uncle and father-in-law, Jalaluddin Khalji. As the governor of
Awadh, Alauddin had accumulated a vast treasure by invading Deogir in the
Deccan. Jalaluddin had gone to visit his nephew at Kara in the hope of getting
hold of this treasure. He had left most of his army behind and had crossed the
river Ganges with only a few followers so that his nephew might not take
fright and run away. After murdering his uncle, Alauddin won over most
ofthe nobles and soldiers to his side by a lavish use of gold. But for some time,
Alauddin had to face a series of rebellions—some by disgruntled nobles, and
some by Alauddin’s own relations. To overawe his opponents, Alauddin
Khalji adopted methods of utmost severity and ruthlessness. Most of the
nobles who had defected to him by the lure of gold were either killed or
dismissed and their properties confiscated. Severe punishments were given to
the rebellious members of his own family. He resorted to a wholesale
massacre of the Mongols, a couple of thousands of them having settled down
in Delhi after embracing Islam in the time of Jalaluddin. These new converts
had rebelled, demanding a larger share in the loot in Gujarat having
campaigned there. Alauddin gave harsh punishments even to the wives and
children of these rebels, a practice which, according to the historian Barani,
was a new one and was continued by his successors. Alauddin framed a series
of regulations to prevent the nobles from conspiring against him. They were
forbidden to hold banquets or festivities, or to form marriage alliances
without the permission of the sultan. To discourage festive parties, he banned
the use of wines and intoxicants. He also instituted a spy service to inform the
sultan of all that the nobles said and did.
By these harsh methods, Alauddin Khalji cowed down the nobles, and
made them completely subservient to the crown. No further rebellions took
place during his lifetime. But, in the long run, his methods proved harmful to
the dynasty. The old nobility was destroyed, and the new nobility was taught
to accept anyone who could ascend the throne of Delhi. This became
apparent after Alauddin Khalji’s death in 1316. His favourite, Malik Kafur,
raised a minor son of Alauddin to the throne and imprisoned or blinded his
other sons, without encountering any opposition from the nobles. Soon after
this, Kafur was killed by the palace guards, and a Hindu convert, Khusrau,
ascended the throne. Although the historians of the time accuse Khusrau of
violating Islam and of committing all types of crimes, the fact is that Khusrau
was no worse than any of the preceding monarchs. Nor was any open
resentment voiced against him by the Muslim nobles or by the population of
Delhi. Even Nizamuddin Auliya, the famous Sufi saint of Delhi,
acknowledged Khusrau by accepting his gifts. This had a positive aspect too.
It showed that the Muslims of Delhi and the neighbouring areas were no
longer swayed by racist considerations, and were prepared to obey anyone
irrespective of his family or racial background. This helped in broadening the
social base of the nobility still further. However, in 1320, a group of officers
led by Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq raised the banner of revolt. They broke out into
open rebellion, and in a hard fought battle outside the capital, Khusrau was
defeated and killed.
THE TUGHLAQS (1320—1412)
Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq established a new dynasty which ruled till 1412. The
Tughlaqs provided three competent rulers: Ghiyasuddin, his son Muhammad
bin Tughlaq (1324—51), and his nephew Firuz Shah Tughlaq (1351—88).
The first two of these sultans ruled over an empire which comprised almost
Page 4


SEVEN
The Delhi Sultanat—II (Circa 1200-1400)
THE KHALJIS AND THE TUGHLAQS.
After the death of Balban in 1286, there was again confusion in Delhi for
some time. Balban’s chosen successor, Prince Mahmud, had died earlier in a
battle with the Mongols. A second son, Bughra Khan, preferred to rule over
Bengal and Bihar although he was invited by the nobles at Delhi to assume
the throne. Hence, a grandson of Balban was installed in Delhi. But he was
too young and inexperienced to cope with the situation. There had been a
good deal of resentment and opposition at the attempt of the Turkish nobles
to monopolize high offices. Many non-Turks, such as the Khaljis, had come
to India at the time of the Ghurid invasion. They had never received sufficient
recognition in Delhi, and had to move to Bengal and Bihar for an opportunity
for advancement. They had also found employment as soldiers, many of them
being posted in the northwest to meet the Mongol challenge. In course of
time, many Indian Muslims had been admitted to the nobility. They also were
dissatisfied at being denied high officers, as may be inferred from the manner
in which Imaduddin Raihan was put up against Balban. Balban’s own
example of setting aside the sons of Nasiruddin Mahmud had demonstrated
that a successful general could ascend the throne by ousting the scions of an
established dynasty, provided he had sufficient support in the nobility and the
army.
THE KHALJIS (1290-1320)
For these reasons, a group of Khalji nobles led by Jalaluddin Khalji, who had
been the warden of the marches in the northwest and had fought many
successful engagements against the Mongols, overthrew the incompetent
successors of Balban in 1290. The Khalji rebellion was welcomed by the non-
Turkish sections in the nobility. The Khaljis were of a mixed Turkish—
Afghan origin, did not exclude the Turks from high offices, but the rise of the
Khaljis to power ended the Turkish monopoly of high offices.
Jalaluddin Khalji ruled only for a brief period of six years. He tried to
mitigate some of the harsh aspects of Balban’s rule. He was the first ruler of
the Delhi Sultanat to clearly put forward the view that the state should be
based on the willing support of the governed, and that since the large majority
of the people in India were Hindus, the state in India could not be a truly
Islamic state. He also tried to gain the goodwill of the nobility by a policy of
tolerance and avoiding harsh punishments. However, many people, including
his supporters, considered this to be a weak policy which was not suited to the
times. The Delhi Sultanat faced numerous internal and external foes, and for
this reason there was a sense of insecurity. Jalaluddin’s policy was reversed by
Alauddin who awarded drastic punishments to all those who dared to oppose
him.
Alauddin Khalji (1296-1316) came to the throne by treacherously
murdering his uncle and father-in-law, Jalaluddin Khalji. As the governor of
Awadh, Alauddin had accumulated a vast treasure by invading Deogir in the
Deccan. Jalaluddin had gone to visit his nephew at Kara in the hope of getting
hold of this treasure. He had left most of his army behind and had crossed the
river Ganges with only a few followers so that his nephew might not take
fright and run away. After murdering his uncle, Alauddin won over most
ofthe nobles and soldiers to his side by a lavish use of gold. But for some time,
Alauddin had to face a series of rebellions—some by disgruntled nobles, and
some by Alauddin’s own relations. To overawe his opponents, Alauddin
Khalji adopted methods of utmost severity and ruthlessness. Most of the
nobles who had defected to him by the lure of gold were either killed or
dismissed and their properties confiscated. Severe punishments were given to
the rebellious members of his own family. He resorted to a wholesale
massacre of the Mongols, a couple of thousands of them having settled down
in Delhi after embracing Islam in the time of Jalaluddin. These new converts
had rebelled, demanding a larger share in the loot in Gujarat having
campaigned there. Alauddin gave harsh punishments even to the wives and
children of these rebels, a practice which, according to the historian Barani,
was a new one and was continued by his successors. Alauddin framed a series
of regulations to prevent the nobles from conspiring against him. They were
forbidden to hold banquets or festivities, or to form marriage alliances
without the permission of the sultan. To discourage festive parties, he banned
the use of wines and intoxicants. He also instituted a spy service to inform the
sultan of all that the nobles said and did.
By these harsh methods, Alauddin Khalji cowed down the nobles, and
made them completely subservient to the crown. No further rebellions took
place during his lifetime. But, in the long run, his methods proved harmful to
the dynasty. The old nobility was destroyed, and the new nobility was taught
to accept anyone who could ascend the throne of Delhi. This became
apparent after Alauddin Khalji’s death in 1316. His favourite, Malik Kafur,
raised a minor son of Alauddin to the throne and imprisoned or blinded his
other sons, without encountering any opposition from the nobles. Soon after
this, Kafur was killed by the palace guards, and a Hindu convert, Khusrau,
ascended the throne. Although the historians of the time accuse Khusrau of
violating Islam and of committing all types of crimes, the fact is that Khusrau
was no worse than any of the preceding monarchs. Nor was any open
resentment voiced against him by the Muslim nobles or by the population of
Delhi. Even Nizamuddin Auliya, the famous Sufi saint of Delhi,
acknowledged Khusrau by accepting his gifts. This had a positive aspect too.
It showed that the Muslims of Delhi and the neighbouring areas were no
longer swayed by racist considerations, and were prepared to obey anyone
irrespective of his family or racial background. This helped in broadening the
social base of the nobility still further. However, in 1320, a group of officers
led by Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq raised the banner of revolt. They broke out into
open rebellion, and in a hard fought battle outside the capital, Khusrau was
defeated and killed.
THE TUGHLAQS (1320—1412)
Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq established a new dynasty which ruled till 1412. The
Tughlaqs provided three competent rulers: Ghiyasuddin, his son Muhammad
bin Tughlaq (1324—51), and his nephew Firuz Shah Tughlaq (1351—88).
The first two of these sultans ruled over an empire which comprised almost
the entire country. The empire of Firuz was smaller but even then it was
almost as large as that ruled over by Alauddin Khalji. After the death of Firuz,
the Delhi Sultanat disintegrated and north India was divided into a series of
small states. Although the Tughlaqs continued to rule till 1412, the invasion
of Delhi by Timur in 1398 may be said to mark the end of the Tughlaq
empire.
We shall first examine the remarkable expansion of the Delhi Sultanat from
the time of Alauddin Khalji, then the various internal reforms in the Sultanat
during the period, and the factors which led to the disintegration of the
Sultanat.
I. EXPANSION OF THE DELHI SULTANAT
We have seen how eastern Rajasthan, including Ajmer and some of its
neighbouring territories, had come under the control of the Delhi Sultanat,
though from the time of Balban, Ranthambhor, which was the most powerful
Rajput state, had gone out of its control. Jalaluddin had undertaken an
invasion of Ranthambhor but found the task too difficult for him. Thus,
southern and western Rajasthan had remained outside the control of the
Sultanat. With the rise to power of Alauddin Khalji, a new situation
developed. Within a space of twenty-five years, the armies of the Delhi
Sultanat not only brought Gujarat and Malwa under their control and
subdued most of the princes in Rajasthan, they also overran the Deccan and
south India upto Madurai. In due course, an attempt was made to bring this
vast area under the direct administrative control of Delhi. The new phase of
expansion was initiated by Alauddin Khalji and was continued under his
successors, the climax being reached during the reign of Muhammad bin
Tughlaq.
We have already seen how the Delhi Sultanat was gradually geared up for
this renewed phase of expansion. At this time, Malwa, Gujarat and Deogir
were being ruled by Rajput dynasties, most of which had come into existence
towards the end of the twelfth and the beginning of the thirteenth century.
Despite the establishment of the Turkish rule in the Ganga valley, these
dynasties had hardly changed their old ways. Moreover, each one of them was
Page 5


SEVEN
The Delhi Sultanat—II (Circa 1200-1400)
THE KHALJIS AND THE TUGHLAQS.
After the death of Balban in 1286, there was again confusion in Delhi for
some time. Balban’s chosen successor, Prince Mahmud, had died earlier in a
battle with the Mongols. A second son, Bughra Khan, preferred to rule over
Bengal and Bihar although he was invited by the nobles at Delhi to assume
the throne. Hence, a grandson of Balban was installed in Delhi. But he was
too young and inexperienced to cope with the situation. There had been a
good deal of resentment and opposition at the attempt of the Turkish nobles
to monopolize high offices. Many non-Turks, such as the Khaljis, had come
to India at the time of the Ghurid invasion. They had never received sufficient
recognition in Delhi, and had to move to Bengal and Bihar for an opportunity
for advancement. They had also found employment as soldiers, many of them
being posted in the northwest to meet the Mongol challenge. In course of
time, many Indian Muslims had been admitted to the nobility. They also were
dissatisfied at being denied high officers, as may be inferred from the manner
in which Imaduddin Raihan was put up against Balban. Balban’s own
example of setting aside the sons of Nasiruddin Mahmud had demonstrated
that a successful general could ascend the throne by ousting the scions of an
established dynasty, provided he had sufficient support in the nobility and the
army.
THE KHALJIS (1290-1320)
For these reasons, a group of Khalji nobles led by Jalaluddin Khalji, who had
been the warden of the marches in the northwest and had fought many
successful engagements against the Mongols, overthrew the incompetent
successors of Balban in 1290. The Khalji rebellion was welcomed by the non-
Turkish sections in the nobility. The Khaljis were of a mixed Turkish—
Afghan origin, did not exclude the Turks from high offices, but the rise of the
Khaljis to power ended the Turkish monopoly of high offices.
Jalaluddin Khalji ruled only for a brief period of six years. He tried to
mitigate some of the harsh aspects of Balban’s rule. He was the first ruler of
the Delhi Sultanat to clearly put forward the view that the state should be
based on the willing support of the governed, and that since the large majority
of the people in India were Hindus, the state in India could not be a truly
Islamic state. He also tried to gain the goodwill of the nobility by a policy of
tolerance and avoiding harsh punishments. However, many people, including
his supporters, considered this to be a weak policy which was not suited to the
times. The Delhi Sultanat faced numerous internal and external foes, and for
this reason there was a sense of insecurity. Jalaluddin’s policy was reversed by
Alauddin who awarded drastic punishments to all those who dared to oppose
him.
Alauddin Khalji (1296-1316) came to the throne by treacherously
murdering his uncle and father-in-law, Jalaluddin Khalji. As the governor of
Awadh, Alauddin had accumulated a vast treasure by invading Deogir in the
Deccan. Jalaluddin had gone to visit his nephew at Kara in the hope of getting
hold of this treasure. He had left most of his army behind and had crossed the
river Ganges with only a few followers so that his nephew might not take
fright and run away. After murdering his uncle, Alauddin won over most
ofthe nobles and soldiers to his side by a lavish use of gold. But for some time,
Alauddin had to face a series of rebellions—some by disgruntled nobles, and
some by Alauddin’s own relations. To overawe his opponents, Alauddin
Khalji adopted methods of utmost severity and ruthlessness. Most of the
nobles who had defected to him by the lure of gold were either killed or
dismissed and their properties confiscated. Severe punishments were given to
the rebellious members of his own family. He resorted to a wholesale
massacre of the Mongols, a couple of thousands of them having settled down
in Delhi after embracing Islam in the time of Jalaluddin. These new converts
had rebelled, demanding a larger share in the loot in Gujarat having
campaigned there. Alauddin gave harsh punishments even to the wives and
children of these rebels, a practice which, according to the historian Barani,
was a new one and was continued by his successors. Alauddin framed a series
of regulations to prevent the nobles from conspiring against him. They were
forbidden to hold banquets or festivities, or to form marriage alliances
without the permission of the sultan. To discourage festive parties, he banned
the use of wines and intoxicants. He also instituted a spy service to inform the
sultan of all that the nobles said and did.
By these harsh methods, Alauddin Khalji cowed down the nobles, and
made them completely subservient to the crown. No further rebellions took
place during his lifetime. But, in the long run, his methods proved harmful to
the dynasty. The old nobility was destroyed, and the new nobility was taught
to accept anyone who could ascend the throne of Delhi. This became
apparent after Alauddin Khalji’s death in 1316. His favourite, Malik Kafur,
raised a minor son of Alauddin to the throne and imprisoned or blinded his
other sons, without encountering any opposition from the nobles. Soon after
this, Kafur was killed by the palace guards, and a Hindu convert, Khusrau,
ascended the throne. Although the historians of the time accuse Khusrau of
violating Islam and of committing all types of crimes, the fact is that Khusrau
was no worse than any of the preceding monarchs. Nor was any open
resentment voiced against him by the Muslim nobles or by the population of
Delhi. Even Nizamuddin Auliya, the famous Sufi saint of Delhi,
acknowledged Khusrau by accepting his gifts. This had a positive aspect too.
It showed that the Muslims of Delhi and the neighbouring areas were no
longer swayed by racist considerations, and were prepared to obey anyone
irrespective of his family or racial background. This helped in broadening the
social base of the nobility still further. However, in 1320, a group of officers
led by Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq raised the banner of revolt. They broke out into
open rebellion, and in a hard fought battle outside the capital, Khusrau was
defeated and killed.
THE TUGHLAQS (1320—1412)
Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq established a new dynasty which ruled till 1412. The
Tughlaqs provided three competent rulers: Ghiyasuddin, his son Muhammad
bin Tughlaq (1324—51), and his nephew Firuz Shah Tughlaq (1351—88).
The first two of these sultans ruled over an empire which comprised almost
the entire country. The empire of Firuz was smaller but even then it was
almost as large as that ruled over by Alauddin Khalji. After the death of Firuz,
the Delhi Sultanat disintegrated and north India was divided into a series of
small states. Although the Tughlaqs continued to rule till 1412, the invasion
of Delhi by Timur in 1398 may be said to mark the end of the Tughlaq
empire.
We shall first examine the remarkable expansion of the Delhi Sultanat from
the time of Alauddin Khalji, then the various internal reforms in the Sultanat
during the period, and the factors which led to the disintegration of the
Sultanat.
I. EXPANSION OF THE DELHI SULTANAT
We have seen how eastern Rajasthan, including Ajmer and some of its
neighbouring territories, had come under the control of the Delhi Sultanat,
though from the time of Balban, Ranthambhor, which was the most powerful
Rajput state, had gone out of its control. Jalaluddin had undertaken an
invasion of Ranthambhor but found the task too difficult for him. Thus,
southern and western Rajasthan had remained outside the control of the
Sultanat. With the rise to power of Alauddin Khalji, a new situation
developed. Within a space of twenty-five years, the armies of the Delhi
Sultanat not only brought Gujarat and Malwa under their control and
subdued most of the princes in Rajasthan, they also overran the Deccan and
south India upto Madurai. In due course, an attempt was made to bring this
vast area under the direct administrative control of Delhi. The new phase of
expansion was initiated by Alauddin Khalji and was continued under his
successors, the climax being reached during the reign of Muhammad bin
Tughlaq.
We have already seen how the Delhi Sultanat was gradually geared up for
this renewed phase of expansion. At this time, Malwa, Gujarat and Deogir
were being ruled by Rajput dynasties, most of which had come into existence
towards the end of the twelfth and the beginning of the thirteenth century.
Despite the establishment of the Turkish rule in the Ganga valley, these
dynasties had hardly changed their old ways. Moreover, each one of them was
contending for mastery over the entire region. So much so, when under
Iltutmish the Turks attacked Gujarat, the rulers of both Malwa and Deogir
attacked it from the south. In the Maratha region the rulers of Deogir were
constantly at war with Warangal in the Telengana region, and with the
Hoysalas in the Karnataka area. The Hoysalas, in turn, were at war with their
neighbours, the Pandyas in Mabar (Tamil area). These rivalries not only
made the conquest of Malwa and Gujarat easier, but tended to draw an
invader further and further into the south.
The Turkish rulers had strong reasons for coveting Malwa and Gujarat.
Not only were these areas fertile and populous, they controlled the western
sea-ports and the trade routes connecting them with the Ganga valley. The
overseas trade from Gujarat ports brought in a lot of gold and silver which
had been accumulated by the rulers of the area. Another reason for the
sultans of Delhi to establish their rule over Gujarat was that it could secure
them a better control over the supply of horses to their armies. With the rise
of the Mongols in Central and West Asia and their struggle with the rulers of
Delhi, the supply of horses of good quality to Delhi from this region had been
beset with difficulties. The import of Arabi, Iraqi and Turki horses to India
from the western sca-ports had been an important item of trade since the
eighth century.
Early in 1299, an army under two of Alauddin Khalji’s noted generals
marched against Gujarat by way of Rajasthan. On their way, they raided and
captured Jaisalmer also. The Gujarat ruler, Rai Karan, was taken by surprise,
and fled without offering a fight. The chief cities of Gujarat, including
Anhilwara where many beautiful buildings and temples had been built over
generations, were sacked. The famous temple of Somnath which had been
rebuilt in the twelfth century was also plundered and sacked. An enormous
booty was collected. Nor were the wealthy Muslim merchants of Cambay
spared. It was here that Malik Kafur, who later led the invasions of south
India, was captured. He was presented to Alauddin, and soon rose in his
estimation.
Gujarat now passed under the control of Delhi. The rapidity and ease with
which Gujarat was conquered suggests that the Gujarat ruler was not popular
among his subjects. It appears that one of his ministers, who had fallen out