Origin and the Rise of Rajputs | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Introduction

The term "Rajput" began to be used in the 6th Century AD, but the exact origin of the Rajputs is a matter of debate among historians. There are several main theories regarding their origin:

Tribal Origin Theory:
Proposed by V.A. Smith, this theory suggests that certain tribal aboriginal groups transformed into Rajputs. For instance:

• Gonds became Chandelas.
• Bhar became Rathore.
• Kharvar became Gahadwal.

The Dharmasastras acknowledge the possibility of lower castes being elevated to higher ones, a process that continues in Hindu society today.

Newly powerful groups, including various local tribal and lineage groups, claimed Kshatriya status by fabricating genealogies, often with the help of Brahmanas. This process is referred to as:

• Kshatriyisation by Hermann Kulke.
• Rajputisation by H. Sinha.

Foreign Origin Theory:
This theory posits that Rajputs are descendants of foreign races such as the Sakas, Kushanas, and Hunas. Notable supporters of this theory include:

• Dr. V.A. Smith
• Col. James Todd
• William Crooks
• Ishwari Prasad
• D.R. Bhandarkar

James Todd argued for the foreign origin of Rajputs based on their worship of Fire, a deity also significant to the Sakas and Hunas. The integration of foreigners into Hindu society was not uncommon during the time of the Rajputs' emergence. Historical instances, such as the matrimonial alliances between Sakas and Hindus, support this notion.

Mixed Origin Theory:

• Dr. D.P. Chatterjee proposed this theory, suggesting that Rajputs are of mixed descent, with some being Aryan and others from foreign races like the Hunas and Sakas.

Kshatriya Theory of Origin:

• Gauri Shankar Hirachand Ojha put forth this theory, arguing that Rajputs are descendants of ancient Kshatriyas from the Solar and Lunar dynasties, not of foreign origin. He noted that the worship of Fire was not exclusive to foreigners but was also practiced by the Aryans.
• This perspective is echoed in bardic literature, where the term "Rajaputra" is used in the Puranas and by Banabhatta to denote a high-born Kshatriya. However, this theory has been challenged by other historians on historical grounds.

Agnikula Theory:
Derived from late legends like the Prithvirajraso of Chandarbardai, this theory claims that Rajputs originated from a sacrificial fire-pit (Agnikunda) performed by Rishi Vashistha at Guru Shikhar in Mount Abu. The four Rajput clans emerging from this Agnikunda are:

• Chauhans
• Chalukyas
• Parmaras
• Pratiharas

Historians supporting foreign origin use this theory to suggest purification rites performed to remove the impurities of foreigners and absorb them into Hinduism.

Diversity of Origin

The various cults, beliefs, manners, and customs among Rajputs indicate a diversity of origin. For example:

• Rajputs who worship the Sun may have foreign origins.
• Those who worship the serpent (naga) are likely descendants of the country's aborigines.

The Evolution of Rajput Polity

The Arab invasion of Sind and Multan in 712-13 A.D. marked the beginning of significant changes in the political landscape of Western India and the Deccan. Within 25 years, the Arabs expanded their influence over Marwar, Malwa, and Broach, posing threats to other parts of India. This period saw the emergence of new powers and clans, notably the Rashtrakutas and the Rajputs.

Emergence of Rajput Clans

• The Rajput clans, previously unknown, began to play a crucial role in the political scene around the eighth century. Lineages such as the Paramaras and the Chahamanas, despite their obscure origins, rose to prominence amidst the conflicts involving major powers like the Gurjara Pratiharas and the Rashtrakutas.
• Initially, the rise of the Rajputs seemed accidental, but a closer examination reveals that their emergence was a gradual process within the existing political hierarchy. Their ascent was not abrupt but rather a part of a broader political evolution.
• The distribution of political authority in medieval Western India was organized through a network of lineages within a monarchical framework. The Rajput clans were integral to this network, contributing to the reconfiguration of power dynamics in the region.

Sources of Rajput Clan History

The history of Rajput clans and their proliferation is primarily derived from bardic chronicles, which provide insights into the political landscape of the time.

Proliferation of Rajput Clans

The proliferation of Rajput clans in Western India is evident through the accounts of bardic chronicles, which detail the rise and expansion of various lineages during the early medieval period.

Paramara Dynasty:

• Dharanivaraha, a ruler from the Paramara dynasty, played a pivotal role in the expansion of his lineage by occupying Marwar and dividing it among his nine brothers.
• This led to the emergence of several Paramara lines in addition to those in Malwa, including:
• Abu
• Bhinmal
• Jalor
• Vagada

Chahamanas:

• Similar to the Paramaras, the Chahamanas also expanded their influence beyond Broach.
• Different lines of the Chahamanas emerged in various regions, including:
• Pratabgarh
• Nadol
• Shakambhari
• Satyapura
• Abu

Other Rajput Clans:

• The Chapas were another notable Rajput clan during this period, ruling over principalities such as Bhillamala and Vadhiar.
• The Guhilas, another prominent clan, established their rule over regions like Udaipur and Mewar.
• This period also witnessed the emergence of various minor Rajput clans, contributing to the complex tapestry of political authority in Western India.

Formation of Lineage Power

The formation and consolidation of lineage power in Western India during the medieval period were marked by significant variations and processes that were interconnected rather than isolated.

Indicators of Lineage Power Formation:

• One key indicator of lineage power formation was the colonization of new areas, evidenced by the expansion of settlements.
• Colonization often resulted from the annexation of new territories through organized military strength.
• Territorial expansion by Western Indian powers sometimes occurred at the expense of tribal settlements.

Examples of Territorial Expansion:

• The Pratihar Kakkaka of Mandor is said to have resettled a place deemed undesirable due to its Abhira inhabitants.
• There are also instances of suppression of tribal populations such as the Shabaras, Bhillas, and Pulindas in Western and Central India.
• The bardic tradition suggests that the Guhila kingdoms in south Rajasthan succeeded earlier tribal chiefdoms, indicating a shift in political authority.

Replacement of Lineages:

• Political authority of a lineage could be established by replacing one lineage with another.
• For example, the Chahamanas of Jalor replaced the Paramaras of Jalor, with Kirtipala, a Chahamana Rajput, making it the capital of his new kingdom.
• Similarly, the Chahamana line of Broach was established by replacing the Gurjaras of Broach.

Complexity of Lineage Power Formation:

• The formation of lineage power was a multifaceted process involving various channels and interactions.
• It was not a linear or uniform process but rather a dynamic interplay of different factors.
• The processes of rising in social status and consolidation of lineage power were integral to this evolution.
• Successful competition for political power by large ethnic groups and the rise of ruling lineages were significant aspects of this period.

Consolidation of Lineage Power

The consolidation of lineage power in medieval Western India was characterized by various processes and strategies that reinforced the authority and influence of ruling lineages.

Land Distribution and Control:

• Land distribution among members of ruling lineages was a crucial aspect of consolidation.
• Land assignments such as grasa,grasabhumil, or bhukti were typically held by the king and allocated to lineage members.
• This distribution helped in establishing control over territories and consolidating power.

Construction of Fortresses:

• The construction of fortresses on a large scale across different locations served multiple purposes.
• Besides providing defense, these fortresses acted as centers of control over surrounding rural areas.
• Fortresses played a significant role in the consolidation of ruling families by establishing their presence and authority in the region.

Marriage Networks:

• Marriage networks among ruling clans were instrumental in the consolidation of clan power at the social level.
• These networks fostered inter-clan relationships, which had significant political implications.
• Notable matrimonial alliances included those between the Paramara and Rashtrakuta clans or between the Chahamana and Paramara families.

Through these processes, ruling lineages in medieval Western India were able to solidify their power, expand their influence, and establish a lasting political and social legacy in the region.

Nature and Structure of Polity

The history of political instability and the frequent change of ruling lineages in early medieval India are evident through various examples.

Mobilization of Military Strength:

• The mobilization of military strength during this period was not just a means to displace a ruling lineage but also a way to establish new centers and networks of power.
• For instance, the Vagada branch of the Paramaras, initially a loyal feudatory line, eventually defied the Paramaras of Malwa and became independent in the late 11th century.
• This branch was later dethroned by a different genealogy, illustrating the frequent changes in ruling classes.

Bureaucratic Structure and Administration

Powerful Bureaucracy:

• Early medieval powers like the Chaulukyas, Paramaras, and Chahamanas relied on a powerful bureaucracy to maintain stable governance.
• Various officers assisted in the transaction of state affairs, and the names of these officials are recorded in historical documents.

Government Departments:

• The Lekhapaddhati provides insights into the departments of the Chaulukya government, such as Sri-Karana (Chief Secretariat), Vyaya Karana (Accounts Department), Vyapara-Karana (Trade Supervision), and Mandapika-Karana (Tax Collection).
• These departments were headed by ministers known as mahamatyas.

Important Officers:

• Various officers played crucial roles in the administration, such as mahasandhivigrahika(Minister of Peace and War),mahakshapatalika(Head of Accounts), and mahamantrin(Chief Minister).
• The dandanayaka(Military Officer) and baladhipas(Military Officers in charge of outposts) were also significant officials.

Lineage State and Feudal Polity:

• From the Gupta period onwards, the interrelatedness of polities was evident, where the consolidation of lineage power was linked with landholding.
• Under the Gurjara Pratiharas, references to estates held by chiefs of various clans illustrate this connection.

Feudal Polity and Samanta System:

• The samanta system reflected a range of statuses within the landed aristocracy.
• Feudatories, known by titles like mandalika,maharajadhiraja, and mahasamanta, were integral to the power structure.
• Feudatory chiefs, such as the Paramaras of Abu and the Chahamanas of Jalor, played significant roles in the administration.

Types of Feudatory Chiefs:

• Feudatory chiefs were categorized based on their relationship with the king and their territorial control, such as those rewarded by the king, those who built principalities during aggrandizement, and those who carved out territories by force.
• Big feudatory chiefs enjoyed considerable autonomy, with the power to create sub-feudatories and appoint officers.
• Such practices are known as sub-infeudation.

Feudatory Obligations:

• Feudatories owed fiscal and military obligations to their overlords, such as supplying soldiers in times of need.
• The relationship between suzerain and vassal often depended on strength and the ability to enforce authority.
• Feudatory princes were expected to assist their suzerains against enemies and sometimes conquer new territories for them.
• Feudatories swore loyalty to new kings upon their accession and paid tribute in various forms.

Political System Features:

• The political system had a feudal character, with overlord-subordinate relationships being central.
• Landholding was a status symbol, and the consolidation of political status was achieved through landholding.
• Fiefs and estates became centers of local control, giving rise to local ruling elites.
• While there was a degree of centralization, the system was largely decentralized, with vassals wielding significant power.

Role of Bureaucracy and Revenue System:

• The bureaucracy, although well-organized in theory, played a minor role due to the feudal nature of the polity.
• The revenue system was primarily based on land tax, with additional levies on trade and commerce.
• Centralized revenue systems lost relevance, and the system relied on feudal tribute.
• Peasant oppression and immobility, along with limited use of metal money, were significant issues in this system.

Rajput’s Society and Culture

Social Organization and Structure:

• The Rajput society was organized on a feudal basis, divided into various clans led by hereditary ruling houses. There was strong loyalty and obedience to the chieftains.
• The main profession of the Rajputs was fighting to defend their clan and chief.
• Village communities were governed by panchayats, enjoying autonomy in internal affairs.
• The absence of written law meant that Rajput states were governed by local customs and traditions.
• The feudal administrative setup was often simple and inefficient.

Values and Characteristics:

• Rajputs were known for their courage,chivalry,honesty,generosity, and hospitality. They were straightforward and rejected deceitful practices in warfare.
• They were freedom-loving with a strong sense of honor and self-respect, often participating in battles for the glory of their family or clan.
• Rajput women enjoyed a level of freedom and respect, with practices like swayamvar for choosing husbands. However, rigid caste systems, sati, child marriage, and bans on widow remarriage were prevalent.
• Women demonstrated bravery and participated in warfare, with the practice of jauhar—self-immolation to preserve honor—being common in times of defeat.

Caste System and Social Organization:

• The caste system was a fundamental aspect of social organization, with the proliferation of various castes.
• Lower castes faced increased disabilities, with harsh treatment of workers, weavers, fishermen, barbers, and tribal communities.
• Rajputs emerged as a new caste, with ruling families of various castes being classified as Rajputs over time.

Education and Learning:

• Education was limited to a small section of the population, primarily Brahmins and some upper classes.
• Nalanda in Bihar was a prominent center of higher learning, along with Vikramasila and Uddandapura. Several centers of learning flourished in Kashmir.
• Subjects like religion and philosophy were popular for study and discussion.

Religion and Philosophy:

• Rajputs were strong supporters of Hinduism, with some patronizing Jainism.
• They made significant donations and grants of land to Brahmins and temples, protecting the privileges of Brahmins and the caste system.
• Buddhism declined in popularity, while Jainism received patronage from rulers like the Chalukyans in Karnataka.

Art and Architecture:

• The period saw a peak in temple construction in North India, with notable examples like the Khajuraho temples in Madhya Pradesh, the Jain temple at Mt. Abu, and the Lingaraj Temple at Bhubaneswar.
• Rajputs built canals,dams,forts,palaces, and public works like stepped wells (baolis) and bunds. Notable examples include the palaces of Jaipur and Udaipur and forts like Chittor,Mandu,Jodhpur, and Gwalior.

Literature and Scholarship:

• Many works were written in Sanskrit, with Dhara, the capital of the Paramara rulers, being a center for Sanskrit learning. Works in Apabhramsha and Prakrit also emerged, reflecting regional languages.
• Notable examples include Kalhana's 'Rajtarangini', a history of Kashmir, and Chandbardoi's 'Prithviraj Raso', detailing the exploits of Prithviraj Chauhan.

Limitations:

• The Rajputs' martial nature had negative aspects, with personal freedom, vanity, and pride hindering unity.
• Lack of political foresight and regional consciousness led to constant internal conflicts, preventing a strong national identity.
• Mutual warfare became a sport, wasting resources and weakening military strength, making it difficult to unite against Muslim invasions.
• Adherence to traditional ethical norms in warfare, such as protection of refugees and enemies, despite repeated harm.

General Conditions of the People:

• There was a significant disparity in living standards, with ministers, officials, and feudal chiefs living in luxury while ordinary people faced hardship.
• Peasants were burdened with heavy land revenue and taxes imposed by feudal lords, along with forced labor.
• Overall, the growth of scientific knowledge slowed, and society became more rigid, with thinking mostly limited to traditional philosophy. India became insular, cut off from broader scientific currents.

The economy during Rajput age

Agriculture as the Primary Occupation:

• The Rajput rulers enhanced agricultural productivity by constructing canals, tanks, and artificial lakes to collect rainwater for irrigation. They also built dams, which improved irrigation facilities. These advancements positively impacted agriculture and the economic conditions of cultivators, although some faced challenges from autocratic feudal chiefs.

Taxes:

• Land revenue was the primary source of income, determined by a formula based on soil fertility, irrigation facilities, and other factors.
• Land revenue was paid mainly in farm produce, with a portion paid in cash.
• Additional sources of income included gifts, fines, minerals, tolls, forests, and leased-out lands.

Industry:
Despite the presence of various industries, the overall state of industry declined during this period. Some important industries included:

• Cotton cloth making
• Woolen cloth production
• Weapon manufacturing
• Salt production
• Carving high-quality artistic pieces
• Statue making from 'Ashtadhatus' (eight metals)
• Pottery making
• Ornament making
• Other industries included 'gur' making, sugar, oil, and liquor production.

Trade and Commerce:

•  Trade, both internal and external, experienced a decline, although this trend was not uniform across all of India.
• The decline of long-distance trade within the country contributed to the weakening of trade guilds, shrenis, and sanghs.
• During this period, Dharmashastras imposed a ban on sea travel, considering it polluting. However, this ban was not always strictly followed.
• Seaborne trade and land-based foreign trade were significant aspects of trade during this time.
• From the 6th century onwards, a vibrant trade developed between South India and Southeast Asia.
• The Harisena’s Brihatkatha-kosh provides insights into geographical aspects and peculiar features of the language, dress, and customs of the area.
• Stories of Indian merchants' adventures, such as the famous tales of Sindbad the sailor, reflect the trade activities of the time.
• In South India, merchants organized into guilds, with the Manigraman and Nandesi being the most renowned.
• The decline of the Roman Empire adversely affected India's seaborne trade.
• India imported high-quality horses, fine wine, Chinese silk, grapes from Cambodia, and various other articles from Central Asia and Western countries.
• Spices were imported from Southeast Asian countries.
• India's exports included sandalwood, camphor, cloves, indigo, ivory, coconut, various herbs, black pepper, cardamom, hides, tusar, and woolen clothes.