Perspectives on the Study of Indian Society Indology (G.S. GHURYE) | Sociology Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Indian Society Indology - G.S. GHURYE

Indology: A Systematic Study of Indian Society and Culture
Indology refers to the systematic study of Indian society and culture, focusing on the uniqueness of Indian civilization which cannot be fitted into the framework of European Sociology. Indologists rely primarily on classical texts, manuscripts, archaeological artifacts, and symbolic expressions to understand Indian culture.

• The Emergence of Indology as an Independent Discipline: Indology as an independent discipline predates sociology in India. The first significant center of Indology was established by Sir William Jones at Kolkata in 1784 AD. By the time the first department of Sociology was started at Bombay University in 1919, Indology was already well-established in India. As a result, founding fathers of Indian sociology like B.K. Sarkar, G.S. Ghurye, Radhakamal Mukherjee, K.M. Kapadia, P.H. Prabhu, and Iravati Karve were influenced by the Indological approach.
• Indological Approach in Indian Sociology: The Indological approach in Indian sociology is influenced by the discipline of Indology but is not coterminous with it. Indian sociologists who have used the Indological approach are influenced by other sociological perspectives as well. For example, G.S. Ghurye synthesized the Indological approach with the diffusionist approach propagated by W.H.R Rivers.

Indology vs. Oriental Studies

Within Indological studies, there are two types of works: Indology (or India studies) and Oriental studies. Indology offers a sympathetic and positive account of Indian society and culture, while Orientalism presents a more negative and unsympathetic view. Indology is said to be the labor of love for Indian wisdom, while Orientalism emerged to serve the needs of the British Empire and other colonial powers of the West.

• Indological Approach in Indian Sociology: Major Contributions: The Indological approach has significantly contributed to the understanding of Indian family, marriage, kinship, religion, art, culture, language, mythology, and civilization. Later, under the influence of Louis Dumont and Mckim Marriott, culturological writings on India have fruitfully utilized the insights of the Indological approach.

G.S. Ghurye: Founding Father of Indian Sociology and Indologist

G.S. Ghurye, a founding father of Indian sociology, was an Indologist. His works, which explored diverse aspects of Indian culture and society through the use of Indological sources, have had a profound influence on the development of the twin disciplines in India. Ghurye introduced a down-to-earth empiricism in Indian sociology and social anthropology, conducting field surveys and writing monographs on various topics related to Indian society and culture.

“Indology plays a crucial role in understanding Indian society and culture, especially its uniqueness that cannot be fitted into the framework of European Sociology. The Indological approach in Indian sociology, pioneered by scholars like G.S. Ghurye, has greatly contributed to the study of Indian family, marriage, kinship, religion, art, culture, language, mythology, and civilization.”

Structural Functionalism (M.N. SRINIVAS)

Structural Functionalism, as developed by M.N. Srinivas, is a sociological approach that emphasizes the importance of studying the empirical structure of society as opposed to focusing solely on cultural norms. This approach is based on the belief that sociology is a universal science of society and can be applied to various contexts for comparative analysis. The central concept within this approach is the social structure, which refers to recurring patterns of social behavior and enduring relationships between elements of a society.

• Various sociologists, such as A.R. Radcliffe-Brown, have influenced M.N. Srinivas's development of Structural Functionalism. Radcliffe-Brown differentiates the culture of a society from its social structure, viewing culture as the standardized mode of behavior, thinking, and feeling. Social structure, on the other hand, consists of the sum total of all social relationships at a given moment in time.
• In India, the Structural Functional approach has gained significant popularity and has been applied to study various aspects of Indian society, such as village communities, caste structure, family structure, kinship structure, religious structure, and political structure. This approach has also been used to examine issues of equality and inequality, social stratification, demographic changes, and power structures in Indian society.
• Some notable examples of studies using the Structural Functional approach in India include M.N. Srinivas's studies of the Coorgs, Rampura village, and social change in modern India, S.C. Dube’s studies of Indian villages, F.G. Bailey’s analysis of structural changes in India, and Andre Beteille's studies of caste, class, and power in a Tanjore village.
• The Structural Functional approach in Indian sociology is characterized by the use of multiple conceptual categories and the application of comparative methods. While these studies are primarily rooted in empirical fields, their theoretical and conceptual frameworks have proven useful for broader generalizations.
• However, there are some limitations to the Structural Functional approach. Many such studies tend to neglect cultural or historical dimensions, often overlooking hidden contradictions and presenting a more consensual view of the social structure. Despite these limitations, the strength of the Structural Functional approach lies in its rich empirical traditions and its sophisticated conceptual and theoretical frameworks.

In summary, Structural Functionalism, as developed by M.N. Srinivas, is a sociological approach that highlights the importance of studying the empirical structure of society and has been widely applied to various aspects of Indian society. While it has some limitations, the approach offers valuable insights into the study of social structures and has contributed significantly to the understanding of Indian society.

Srinivas on Structural - Funtionalism 

Mysore has been a significant research site for the renowned Indian sociologist and social anthropologist M.N. Srinivas. His works on the social organization of Mysore families, religion and society among the Coorgs of South India, and the village of Rampura have contributed immensely to the field of anthropology, particularly in the area of structural-functionalism. Influenced by Radcliffe-Brown, Srinivas focused on the relationship of roles and statuses of castes and their occupations.

• Srinivas' Research on Mysore Families and Coorg Society: Srinivas began his anthropological journey with a doctoral discussion on the social organization of Mysore families in 1942. Later, he submitted his doctoral dissertation on 'Religion and Society among the Coorgs of South India' to Oxford University, which was published as a book in 1952. In these works, Srinivas examined the social structures and functions of families and communities in these regions, shedding light on their unique cultural practices and beliefs.
• Fieldwork in Rampura Village: Srinivas conducted fieldwork in the village of Rampura, located 25 miles southeast of Mysore city, for ten months in 1948 and two months in 1952. He also made several visits to the village at different times. Through his research papers, Srinivas provided an in-depth analysis of the social system of Rampura, exploring the caste relationships, village unity, and the impact of dominant castes on the village's social structure.
• Caste System and Occupational Roles: Influenced by Radcliffe-Brown, Srinivas focused on the structural study of the relationship between roles and statuses of castes and their occupations in Rampura. He found that the village was organized into several horizontal layers, each representing a caste. The caste system influenced the occupational roles of the villagers, with different castes specializing in various tasks and professions.
• Village Unity and Dominant Caste: Srinivas emphasized the unity of the village, observing that it was a vertical entity made up of several horizontal layers, each representing a caste. Village unity was expressed through the rituals supervised by village officials, the guidance of village elders, and the influence of the dominant caste. Srinivas' work highlights the importance of understanding the complex interplay of caste, occupation, and social structure in Indian villages.

M.N. Srinivas' research in Mysore, the Coorg region, and the village of Rampura has significantly contributed to the field of anthropology and our understanding of structural-functionalism. His focus on the relationship between caste, occupation, and social structure has provided valuable insights into the complexities of Indian village life and the importance of examining these relationships to understand the society as a whole.

Concept of Sanskritization

Sanskritization is a term coined by Indian sociologist M.N. Srinivas in his book "Religion and Society among Coorgs of South India" (1952). It refers to the process by which a low Hindu caste, tribal, or other groups with lower status, change their customs, rituals, ideology, and way of life in the direction of a high and frequently twice-born caste (Dwij-Jati). This process is generally followed by a claim to a higher position in the caste hierarchy than that traditionally conceded to the claimant caste by the local community.

• Sanskritization and Upward Mobility: Upward mobility is often associated with Sanskritization, as the caste in question claims a higher position in the social hierarchy. However, mobility may also occur without Sanskritization and vice versa. The mobility associated with Sanskritization results only in positional changes within the hierarchical system, not leading to any structural change. The system itself remains essentially stable, as the hierarchy remains intact.
• Sanskritization Among Tribes and Semi-Tribes: Sanskritization is not limited to Hindu castes but also occurs among tribal and semi-tribal groups such as Gonds, Oraons, Cheros of Central India, and Pahadis of the Himalayas. This process usually results in the tribe undergoing Sanskritization claiming to be a caste and, therefore, Hindu. In the traditional system, the only way to become a Hindu was to belong to a caste, and the unit of mobility was usually a group, not an individual or a family.
• Critique of Srinivas's Concept of Sanskritization: Srinivas's concept of Sanskritization has been criticized for focusing primarily on the Brahminical model, derived from Kannada, Tamil, and Telugu Brahmins, while ignoring other models like Kshatriya, Vaishya, and Shudra. This limitation in the concept has led to an incomplete understanding of the various processes of social change and mobility that occur across different regions and castes in India.

Concept of Westernization

Westernization refers to the changes introduced into Indian society during British rule, which continue to impact various aspects of Indian life even after gaining independence. This concept can be explored in terms of technology, institutions, ideology, and values. The process of Westernization has accelerated since India's independence and has affected different sections of the population in various ways.

• Technological Impact of Westernization: The British brought new technology to India that helped to integrate the country like never before. For example, the Indian Railways played a crucial role in connecting different parts of the nation and facilitating the spread of Western ideas and practices. Furthermore, the establishment of modern communication systems like posts and telegraphs contributed to greater awareness among Indians about global events and perspectives.
• Institutional Impact of Westernization: The British introduced various institutions that formed the foundation of a modern state in India. These included a modern bureaucracy, army, police, courts, schools, colleges, universities, and infrastructural developments like roads and canals. These institutions not only transformed the administrative system but also impacted the education and social structure of India, leading to a shift in traditional knowledge systems and social hierarchies.
• Ideological Impact of Westernization: The British rule led to the introduction of new knowledge, beliefs, and values in Indian society. The advent of printing press facilitated the widespread dissemination of modern as well as traditional knowledge to a large number of Indians. Newspapers made people aware of global events and opinions, leading to a broader worldview and a greater receptiveness to Western ideas.
• Impact of Westernization on Social Practices and Values: During the 19th century, several social reforms took place in India with the support of enlightened Indian opinion and British administration. Practices like Sati (1829), female infanticide, human sacrifice, and slavery (1833) were abolished, reflecting a shift in societal values and norms. Christian missionaries also played a role in spreading Western values and ideologies, leading to changes in religious beliefs and practices among the Indian population.
• Acceleration of Westernization Post-Independence: After India gained independence, the process of Westernization continued and even gained momentum in some aspects. The Indian government adopted various Western models for economic development, education, and legislation, leading to the further spread of Western ideas and values among the Indian population. The continued influence of Western culture through media, literature, and globalization has also contributed to the ongoing process of Westernization in India.

Westernization, Urbanization and Industrialization

Srinivas has conceptually differentiated between westernization and two other processes that typically occur simultaneously with it -- urbanization and industrialization.

• It is widely agreed among scholars that the industrial revolution led to an increase in the rate of urbanization, and areas with high levels of industrialization are considered highly urbanized. However, urbanization is not solely a result of industrialization. There are examples of urban cities in the Indus Valley civilization and ancient Indian cities such as Gaya, Prayag, and Varanasi, which existed even before the industrial era.
• It is essential to note that westernization should not be conflated with urbanization. In a country like India, it is possible to find groups living in rural areas that have a more westernized lifestyle than many urban groups. These groups can be found in regions where plantation or commercial crops are grown, or in areas with a history of providing recruits for the Indian army.
• Westernization not only introduces new institutions (e.g., newspapers, elections, Christian missions) but also brings about changes in existing institutions. For example, India had schools long before the British arrived, but these schools were different from those introduced by the British as they were limited to upper-caste children and primarily focused on traditional knowledge. Other institutions such as the army, civil service, and law courts were similarly impacted.

Westernization and Modernization

Both westernization and modernization are terms used to describe the changes that occur in non-western countries due to contact with western countries.

1. Modernization: Definition and Features
According to Daniel Lerner, modernization encompasses a positivist spirit that affects both public institutions and private aspirations. This spirit alone is not sufficient; a revolution is also essential. Some of the key features of modernization include:

• Urbanization: Modernization is marked by an increase in urbanization, leading to a spread in literacy and access to media.
• Economic and Political Participation: With increased urbanization and media exposure, modernization is associated with greater economic participation (per capita income) and political participation (voting).
• Social Mobility: Modernization encourages social mobility, shaping individual behavior and rewards based on achievements rather than heritage.
• Rationalization of Ends: Modernization requires that societal goals should be rational and open to discussion, though it should be noted that social goals ultimately express value preferences and may not be entirely rational.

2. Westernization: Definition and Ethical Neutrality
Unlike modernization, westernization is an ethically neutral term that does not inherently imply whether the changes brought about are good or bad. Westernization simply refers to the adoption of Western culture, practices, and values.

3. Differences between Westernization and Modernization
While both terms refer to changes in non-western societies due to contact with western countries, there are several key differences between westernization and modernization:

• Ethical Implications: Westernization is ethically neutral, whereas modernization is generally seen as a positive and desirable process.
• Focus on Rationality: Modernization emphasizes the need for rationality in societal goal-setting and decision-making, whereas westernization does not necessarily involve such rationalization.
• Social Mobility and Individualism: Modernization encourages social mobility and individual achievements, while westernization does not necessarily have a direct impact on these aspects.

Concept of Secularization

Secularization is a process that has been gaining ground in India, particularly since British rule. This process has been marked by a shift away from traditional religious practices and beliefs towards a more rational, modern approach to life. In this context, secularization refers to the tendency for various aspects of society - economic, political, legal, and moral - to become increasingly separate from religious influence. This process has been facilitated by factors such as the development of communications, growth of towns and cities, increased spatial mobility, and the spread of education.

• Impact of British Rule on Secularization: British rule in India played a significant role in initiating the process of secularization. The British administration introduced modern education, legal systems, and governance structures that were based on rational principles rather than religious beliefs. This, in turn, led to a gradual erosion of the influence of religion on various aspects of Indian society.
• Secularization in Independent India: After India gained independence, the process of secularization deepened and broadened. This can be seen in the declaration of India as a secular state, the constitutional recognition of equality for all citizens before the law, the introduction of universal adult suffrage, and the implementation of a planned development program. These measures have further weakened the influence of religion on various aspects of Indian society.
• Secularization and Sanskritization: Secularization and Sanskritization are two seemingly contradictory processes that are both gaining ground in modern India. While secularization affects all Indians, Sanskritization primarily impacts Hindus and tribal groups. The urban and educated groups in India tend to be more secularized, while the lower Hindu castes and tribes tend to be more Sanskritized.

• The Role of Rationalism in Secularization: Rationalism is a key component of secularization. It involves the replacement of traditional beliefs and ideas with modern knowledge and the interpretation of the universe in purely rational terms. Rationalism also seeks to regulate individual and social life based on reason and to eliminate or relegate irrational elements to the background.
• The Effects of Secularization on Hinduism: Hinduism has been more affected by the process of secularization than any other religious group in India. The traditional concepts of pollution and purity within Hinduism have been weakened as a result of various factors, such as urbanization and education. The impact of secularization can be seen in various aspects of Hindu life, including daily practices, rituals, ceremonies, and occupations.

Concept of Dominant Caste

M.N. Srinivas introduced the concept of dominant caste based on his extensive study in Rampura, as documented in his paper, "Dominant Caste in Rampura" (American Anthropologist). He posited that a dominant caste is one that owns a significant portion of the arable land in a village, has a high population, and holds a high place in the local social hierarchy. This concept helps in understanding the dynamics of rural social organization in India.

1. Characteristics of a Dominant Caste: According to Srinivas, a caste can be considered dominant when it has the following attributes:

• Numerical Strength - The caste should be significantly larger in population compared to other castes in the village.
• Control of Resources - The caste should own a sizable amount of the locally available arable land.
• High Place in Local Hierarchy - The caste should hold a high position in the local social hierarchy.
• Economic and Political Power - The caste should wield considerable economic and political influence in the village.

2. Role of Dominant Caste in Rural Social Organization: The dominant caste plays a crucial role in the settlement of disputes and maintenance of social order in the village. Traditional village and caste councils, led by dominant caste leaders, often settle disputes among various castes and even within non-dominant castes.

3. Factors Affecting Dominance: Srinivas identified four factors related to dominant caste:

• Numerical Strength
• Control of Resources (i.e., land)
• Possession of Political Power
• Socio-Religious Status

However, in recent times, new factors have emerged that affect dominance, such as western education, jobs in administration, and urban sources of income. Additionally, the introduction of adult franchise and Panchayati Raj (local self-government) since India's independence has empowered lower castes, particularly Harijans, who have reserved seats in elected bodies from the village to the union Parliament.

4. Implications and Changes in Dominance: The changes in the factors affecting dominance have long-term implications. Power has shifted from the traditional high castes to numerically large, land-owning peasant castes in many parts of rural India. This power structure may continue unless Harijans, who are numerically strong, can take advantage of new educational and economic opportunities. Endemic factionalism within dominant castes may also threaten their continued power.
Moreover, dominance is no longer a purely local matter. A caste group that has only a few families in a village but enjoys regional dominance will still have influence due to its network of ties with other dominant relatives. Conversely, a caste that is dominant in only one village will have to reckon with castes that enjoy regional dominance.

5. Criticisms and Alternative Concepts: S.C. Dube and B.K. Roy Burman have criticized Srinivas' concept of dominant caste. Dube argues that power is concentrated in a few individuals rather than diffused among a caste. Roy Burman, on the other hand, proposes the concept of dominant communities instead of dominant castes. He asserts that dominant communities have multiple dimensions, such as control over resources, social status, and maintenance of law.

Concept of Spread

The concept of spread, as developed by M.N. Srinivas in his book Religion and Society among Coorgs of South India (1952), aims to explain the extensive diversity within Hinduism in India. Srinivas argues that Hinduism has a long history and has spread throughout the entire country, and even beyond, as seen in the case of Buddhism – which originated as a Hindu schism and is now practiced across much of Asia.
To better understand the spread of Hinduism, Srinivas categorizes it into four types: (i) local Hinduism, (ii) regional Hinduism, (iii) all-India or national Hinduism, and (iv) peninsular Hinduism.

• Local Hinduism refers to the shared beliefs, rituals, and practices of Hindus living within a specific local area. This type of Hinduism is characterized by its limited geographical scope and unique cultural aspects that may not be found in other parts of the country.
• Regional Hinduism is practiced within a particular region, defined by common cultural, linguistic, and geographical boundaries. This type of Hinduism is more widespread than local Hinduism but is still restricted to a specific region within the country. For example, Srinivas mentions Malabar and Coorg as distinct regions within the larger scope of regional Hinduism.
• All-India or national Hinduism encompasses the common beliefs, rituals, and festivals shared by all Hindus across the nation. This type of Hinduism transcends regional boundaries and unites the diverse Hindu population through shared practices and sacred sites. Examples of national Hinduism include the widespread celebration of festivals like Holi, Dashara, and Diwali, as well as pilgrimages to sacred places like Gaya, Ganga Sagar, Kurukshetra, and Rameshwaram.
• Peninsular Hinduism, as the name suggests, covers the entire Indian peninsula, including both mainland and coastal regions. This type of Hinduism encompasses a wide range of beliefs and practices, reflecting the diversity of the Indian subcontinent.

Concept of Vertical and Horizontal Caste Solidarity

M.N. Srinivas, in his books 'Caste in Modern India' (1962) and 'Caste in Modern India and Other Essays' (1962), criticizes the Varna model for producing a distorted image of the caste system in India. According to Srinivas, a sociologist must look beyond the Varna model to understand the intricacies of the caste system, particularly in regions that the model fails to address. Although Srinivas does not provide a clear definition of caste, he asserts that caste is the structural basis of Hindu society. In this context, he introduces the concepts of vertical and horizontal caste solidarity to analyze the interrelationships between various castes and sub-castes.

• Vertical Solidarity: Vertical solidarity refers to the common elements of local culture shared by all castes living in a region, regardless of their hierarchical status. Srinivas observes that castes from the highest to the lowest in a region often share a common language, celebrate the same festivals, and worship the same deities and beliefs. This form of unity among castes is known as vertical solidarity.
  For instance, the Brahmin and the Harijan in a particular region may speak the same language and observe the same customs and rituals. Vertical solidarity highlights the cultural similarities that bind different castes together within a specific region.
• Horizontal Solidarity: In contrast to vertical solidarity, horizontal solidarity focuses on the common rituals, beliefs, and traditions shared by members of a single caste, irrespective of their region or language. In other words, horizontal solidarity emphasizes the similarities among members of the same caste across different regions.
  For example, Brahmins from the north, south, and central India may have more or less the same Sanskritic traditions and rituals despite living in different regions. This form of solidarity among members of a single caste is known as horizontal solidarity.

Contributions to Village Studies

The year 1955 marked a significant milestone in the field of social anthropological research on villages in India. This was due to the publication of three influential books: Indian Village by S.C. Dube, Village India by McKim Marriot, and India's Villages by M.N. Srinivas. These publications laid the foundation for understanding various aspects of rural sociology in India, including concepts such as Sanskritization, dominant caste, universalization, parochialization, unity and extension, caste ties, and intercaste ties.

• S.C. Dube's Indian Village: S.C. Dube's Indian Village was a pioneering work that provided insights into the social, economic, and political aspects of Indian village life. Dube's book was based on his fieldwork in a village in central India and highlighted the complexities of rural society, including the role of caste, kinship, and local politics.
• McKim Marriot's Village India: Village India, edited by American anthropologist McKim Marriot, was another significant contribution to village studies in India. This work consisted of articles by several anthropologists who conducted fieldwork in different parts of India. The articles in Village India provided a comparative perspective on various aspects of rural life, such as social organization, economic activities, and cultural practices.
• M.N. Srinivas' India's Villages: India's Villages, edited by M.N. Srinivas, was a collection of thirteen articles by American, British, and Indian anthropologists. The contributors to this volume were David G. Mandelbaum, E. Kathleen Gough, McKim Marriot, Pauline Kolenda, Francis W. Miller, F.G. Bailey, A.F. Collin, G.M. Carstairs, W.H. Newell, S.C. Dube, K. Ishwaran, and M.N. Srinivas. Except for Mandelbaum's paper, all the articles were based on fieldwork conducted by the authors in various Indian villages.

Key Concepts and Methodological Approaches
The contributions to village studies in 1955 led to the development of several important concepts and methodological approaches that would be further explored in later works on rural sociology in India. Some of the key concepts include:

1. Sanskritization: This concept, proposed by M.N. Srinivas, refers to the process by which lower caste groups adopt the customs, rituals, and practices of the higher castes in order to improve their social status.
2. Dominant Caste: This term, also introduced by Srinivas, refers to a caste that has a significant influence on the social, economic, and political life of a village. The dominant caste may not necessarily be the highest in the caste hierarchy but usually has a substantial numerical presence and control over resources.
3. Universalization and Parochialization: These concepts, proposed by McKim Marriot, refer to the processes through which local practices and beliefs are integrated into wider regional or national systems, and vice versa.
4. Unity and Extension: This idea, discussed by various authors in India's Villages, emphasizes the interconnectedness of Indian villages and their role in the larger social and cultural landscape.
5. Caste and Intercaste Ties: The articles in these books highlighted the complex relationships between different caste groups within villages, as well as the importance of intercaste interactions for maintaining social harmony and cohesion.

Conclusion

The study of Indian society and culture has been greatly enriched by the contributions of Indologists like G.S. Ghurye and sociologists such as M.N. Srinivas. Their pioneering work in areas such as Sanskritization, dominant caste, secularization, and village studies has provided invaluable insights into the complexities of Indian social organization, cultural practices, and rural life. The concepts of vertical and horizontal caste solidarity, as well as the impact of Westernization, urbanization, and industrialization on Indian society, further demonstrate the richness and diversity of the Indian sociological landscape. These foundational works continue to inform and inspire contemporary research on Indian society and culture.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) of Perspectives on the Study of Indian Society Indology (G.S. GHURYE)

What is Indology, and how does it relate to Indian sociology?

Indology refers to the systematic study of Indian society and culture, focusing on the uniqueness of Indian civilization. It predates sociology in India and has influenced Indian sociology through the works of scholars like G.S. Ghurye. Indological approach in Indian sociology involves the use of classical texts, manuscripts, and archaeological artifacts to understand various aspects of Indian society and culture.

What is Structural Functionalism, and how did M.N. Srinivas contribute to this approach?

Structural Functionalism is a sociological approach that emphasizes the importance of studying the empirical structure of society rather than focusing solely on cultural norms. M.N. Srinivas applied this approach in his research, including his work on Mysore families, Coorg society, and the village of Rampura, to study social structures and their functions in Indian society.

What is the concept of Sanskritization?

Sanskritization, a term coined by M.N. Srinivas, refers to the process by which a low Hindu caste, tribal, or other lower-status groups change their customs, rituals, ideology, and way of life in the direction of a high and frequently twice-born caste. This process is generally followed by a claim to a higher position in the caste hierarchy than traditionally conceded to the claimant caste by the local community.

How is the concept of dominant caste relevant to the study of Indian villages?

The concept of dominant caste, introduced by M.N. Srinivas, helps to understand the dynamics of rural social organization in India. A dominant caste is one that owns a significant portion of the arable land in a village, has a high population, and holds a high place in the local social hierarchy. Dominant castes play crucial roles in the settlement of disputes and maintenance of social order in the village.

What are vertical and horizontal caste solidarity?

Vertical caste solidarity refers to the common elements of local culture shared by all castes living in a region, regardless of their hierarchical status. Horizontal caste solidarity, on the other hand, focuses on the common rituals, beliefs, and traditions shared by members of a single caste, irrespective of their region or language. These concepts, introduced by M.N. Srinivas, help in understanding the interrelationships between various castes and sub-castes in India.