Political Ideologies: Liberalism, Socialism, Marxism, Fascism, Gandhism & Feminism-1 | PSIR Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Introduction

The debate between liberal individualism and communitarianism, which emerged as a central topic in contemporary political theory during the 1980s, was sparked by Michael Sandel's critique of Rawlsian liberalism in his book, Liberalism and the Limits of Justice (1982). This critique was aimed at John Rawls's influential work, A Theory of Justice (1971). Since then, this debate has played a significant role in shaping various aspects of political theory and has led to numerous developments and concerns within the field.

Liberalism

Liberalism began as a progressive ideology and philosophy that aimed to provide freedom and protect individuals from coercion. It emerged during a time of significant social and political change, as the capitalist class gained power and influence. However, as this class became more established, their revolutionary enthusiasm waned, and they transitioned into defenders of the status quo. Consequently, the focus of liberalism shifted from liberty to utility.

• This shift led to the rise of utilitarianism within liberalism, which prioritized pleasure over liberty. Critics referred to this new form of liberalism as "pig's philosophy" due to its focus on hedonism. As a result, liberalism and utilitarianism became the foundation for justifying the extreme exploitation of workers, sparking protests and leading to the emergence of socialism and left-wing movements.
• In response, liberals adapted their ideology, showcasing the flexibility that has allowed liberalism to survive as one of the longest-standing ideologies. It is important to note that liberalism primarily represents the interests of the middle class or the emerging capitalist class. As a product of the Renaissance, Reformation, and Scientific Revolution, liberalism is deeply rooted in humanism.
• At the core of liberalism is the belief that every person is rational, meaning they are capable of understanding what is best for themselves without the need for guidance. Thus, liberalism supports individual autonomy and the concept of the "atomistic man." This belief in the rationality of humans allows for the idea that all people are born equal and free, and therefore have the right to challenge customs and traditions.

Criticism of atomistic man

The concept of 'atomistic man' in liberalism refers to the idea that individuals are self-sufficient and can lead their lives independently. This notion has been criticized as 'abstract individualism,' meaning that it is an unrealistic and idealized description of human beings. Communitarians argue against this concept, stating that individuals cannot be separated from their culture and traditions, as they shape their values and understanding of right and wrong. According to communitarians, individuals are 'situated selves' or 'embedded selves,' and cannot be considered autonomous.

This debate between atomistic man and embedded man can also be seen in the discussions surrounding human rights and Asian values. While liberals argue that individuals can protect their own interests, communitarians emphasize the importance of cultural context.

Liberalism was the first political ideology to emphasize the importance of equality, which is considered a modern value. Within liberalism, there are several concepts of equality:

• Moral equality: As all individuals are considered children of God, they deserve equal respect and dignity. This belief supports the ideas of equality before the law, the rule of law (constitutionalism), and the rejection of arbitrary rule. This idea of equality was particularly important for the emerging capitalist class in their struggle against the privileged elite.
• Equality of opportunity: In the past, only elites could own property, with ownership determined by heredity. Liberals demanded that everyone should have the opportunity to own property based on their abilities or merit, rather than their birth status.
• Proportionate equality: Liberals advocate for proportionate equality, in contrast to the absolute equality promoted by socialists. Socialist critics argue that liberal concepts of equality are merely formal and procedural, while their own concept is more substantive, aiming to make people equal in social and economic terms rather than just in terms of dignity.

In summary, the concept of atomistic man in liberalism has been criticized for being unrealistic and ignoring the importance of cultural context. Liberalism has also introduced several concepts of equality, focusing on moral equality, equality of opportunity, and proportionate equality. These ideas have shaped modern political discourse and continue to influence debates on human rights and social justice.

Classical Liberalism: Perspectives on Society and State

Classical liberalism emphasizes individual freedom and minimal government intervention in society. It posits that individuals precede society as a whole, and that society functions as a marketplace where people pursue their personal interests. This perspective is known as the 'market model of society,' which is criticized by idealists, socialists, and communitarians who argue for the organic view of society, where the collective good is more important than individual interests.

• The classical liberal view of society is also referred to as the 'aggregative' view, as exemplified by Bentham, which suggests that society is merely the sum of its individual members. Critics, such as idealists, socialists, and communitarians, argue against this perspective, proposing the organic view of society, where the whole is more significant than the sum of its parts. For instance, Rousseau claims that the general will is greater than the sum of individual wills.
• Regarding the State, classical liberals consider it a 'necessary evil.' They believe that the State is inherently restrictive of individual liberty but also necessary to maintain law and order in the face of human self-interest. As a result, they advocate for a minimal state that primarily provides law enforcement and maintains order, often referred to as a 'night watchman state' or a 'police state.'
• Thomas Jefferson, a prominent classical liberal, once said that "that government is best which governs least." This sentiment reflects the classical liberal view that the State is not a natural entity but rather a product of a social contract. This perspective, known as the mechanistic view, is opposed to the organic view of the State, favored by idealists, which posits that the State is an integral and natural part of society.

In conclusion, classical liberalism emphasizes individualism and minimal government intervention in society. It advocates for the market model of society and the mechanistic view of the State. However, these perspectives face opposition from idealists, socialists, and communitarians who argue for a more organic and collective approach to both society and the State.

Modern Liberalism

Modern Liberalism and its Emergence
The development of modern liberalism was heavily influenced by the rise of the workers' movement in the West. This shift was necessary for the ruling class to protect capitalism and adapt to the changing social and economic environment. The transition in liberal thought can be traced back to the ideas of John Stuart Mill, who introduced elements of idealism to the framework of liberalism, making his approach somewhat inconsistent with traditional liberal thought.

• Idealism, as incorporated by Mill, asserts that humans are inherently social beings, contrary to the atomistic view of individuals as separate entities. This perspective emphasizes the organic nature of society, where individuals are interconnected and cannot survive without the collective. As such, this narrative highlights the importance of acknowledging the contributions of society and promoting the idea of giving back to the community. This is in contrast to the concept of possessive individualism, which was prevalent in earlier liberal thought. For instance, Aristotle advocated for private ownership but emphasized the need for common use of resources.
• The perception of the state also underwent a significant transformation in modern liberalism, moving towards an organic view. While traditional liberals saw the state as a "necessary evil," idealists considered it to be a "source of virtue." This belief is echoed in Aristotle's assertion that the state exists to ensure not just the sustenance of life, but also the promotion of a good life for its citizens.

Neo Liberalism

Neo-liberalism, often referred to as market fundamentalism, emerged in the 1970s in Western countries like Britain under the name "Thatcherism" and in the United States as "Reaganism" in the 1980s. By the 1990s, it had spread to former communist states in Eastern Europe, including Russia through "Shock therapy," and further expanded to Third World countries like India under Structural Adjustment Programs (SAP). As a result, neo-liberalism became a global phenomenon by the 1990s, and the current wave of globalization is often referred to as neo-liberal or the expansion of capitalism on a global scale.

Why rolling back of the state?

• The main idea behind neo-liberalism is the rolling back of the state. This concept gained traction as the welfare state became unsustainable, particularly in the United States and Britain. The welfare state, which had been introduced in the 1930s in the United States under Roosevelt's New Deal Acts and in Britain in the 1940s based on the Beveridge Report, began facing issues such as fiscal deficits.
• As the state grew larger, it became known as the "Nanny state," where it was expected to take care of people from "cradle to grave." This led to the rise of "New Despots," strengthening bureaucracy, corruption, and black money, ultimately failing to benefit targeted sections of society. Consequently, British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher introduced neo-liberal policies, referring to them as the "TINA factor" (There Is No Alternative).

Neo-liberal policies can be understood through the ten principles of the "Washington Consensus," formulated by economist John Williamson in 1989. These principles aim to reduce the role of the state and emphasize market-oriented policies in order to promote economic growth and stability.

Neo Liberal Philosophers

Hayek: The Father of Neo-Liberalism
Friedrich Hayek is considered the father of neo-liberalism and was a major inspiration for former British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher. His ideas were instrumental in shaping the economic policies of the late 20th century. Here are some of the prominent ideas of Hayek:

• Opposition to Planning: Hayek was against the concept of planning and considered it a fruitless exercise that was bound to fail. He argued that even the most expert planners could not make foolproof plans. According to Hayek, planning leads to an increase in state power, adversely impacting economic growth and individual freedom.
• Market Superiority: Hayek believed that no planner could be as intelligent as the market. He compared the market to a "huge central nervous system" that can intercept millions of messages simultaneously, making it the most efficient allocator of resources.
• Social Justice as a Mirage: Hayek considered social justice unachievable and warned that pursuing it would only lead to increased state power. He argued that justice is a characteristic of the human soul, not a feature of society.
• Opposition to Progressive Taxation: Hayek opposed progressive taxation, comparing it to bonded labor. He argued that it contradicts the principles of non-aggression and often results in money being funneled to bureaucrats and politicians instead of reaching the intended recipients.
• Negative Liberty: Hayek did not believe in concepts like inner freedom, higher freedom, or moral freedom. He defined liberty simply as the absence of coercion.

Other Influential Neo-Liberal Thinkers

• Robert Nozick: In his book "Anarchy, State, and Utopia," Nozick echoed Hayek's principle of non-aggression and opposition to progressive taxation. He supported a minimal state that respects human dignity and motivates people to work hard
• Milton Friedman: In "Capitalism and Freedom," Friedman argued that freedom is only possible through the market and that people should embrace capitalism if they want to be free.
• Murray Rothbard: Rothbard criticized politicians and bureaucrats as a "gang of robbers and thieves" and called the central bank a "legislative fraud."

Social Liberalism: A Response to Neo-Liberalism

• Social liberalism emerged as a response to the growing resentment against neo-liberal policies, which led to increasing inequalities both between and within states. The lack of a "trickle-down effect" and the concentration of wealth in the hands of a few led to global protests against institutions like the World Trade Organization (WTO).
• Prominent social liberal thinker Amartya Sen advocated for state investment in capacity building to help people take advantage of the opportunities created by globalization. He argued that countries like India had not benefited from globalization as much as China and Southeast Asian nations due to a lack of skill development.

Socialism: An Overview

Introduction
Defining socialism is a challenging task due to the numerous variations and country-specific models. The ideology of socialism gained popularity as political parties competed for the votes of the poor. Socialism emerged in the modern West as a response to the exploitative system of capitalism and is primarily an economic doctrine advocating for social ownership over the means of production.

Basic Assumptions of Socialists

• Human Nature: Socialists reject the liberal view of atomistic man and instead emphasize the social nature of humans, focusing on fraternity and camaraderie.
• Society: Socialists reject the aggregative, market model of society, believing that society is natural and whole is prior to part.
• State: There is disagreement among socialists over the role of the state in socialism, with some advocating for state-led socialism and others preferring a stateless society and community-led development.
• Concept of freedom: Socialists believe that the liberal concept of liberty is alienating and isolating. They argue that true freedom is freedom from want or hunger, and that freedom is freedom from necessities.
• Method of bringing socialism: Socialists are divided on the methods to achieve socialism, with some believing in peaceful, constitutional changes, and others in revolutionary methods.

Types of Socialism

1. Socialism before Karl Marx: Early socialists focused on appealing to the conscience of the capitalist class but lacked a scientific understanding of capitalism and a concrete strategy for change.
2. Marxian Socialism: A revolutionary doctrine described by Marx as scientific socialism, which aims to establish communism.
3. Socialism after Marx: Bernstein's socialism: Advocates for parliamentary road to socialism through legislative means.
4. Fabianism: A British variety of socialism that is peaceful and constitutional, aiming to create awareness and consensus in favor of socialism.
5. Guild Socialism: A British variety that is peaceful and constitutional, focusing on the economic interests of various groups.
6. Syndicalism: Advocates for violent techniques to establish the dominance of working classes.

Contemporary Status of Socialism: With the rise of neo-liberalism, socialism lost its prominence, but it is now regaining relevance as an anti-capitalist movement. Numerous protest movements influenced by left ideology are challenging neo-liberalism today. Socialism's biggest relevance lies in making capitalism humane, ensuring that it remains so through the emergence of welfare states.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the debate between liberalism and socialism has shaped modern political discourse and influenced the development of various political ideologies. Liberalism, with its emphasis on individualism and minimal state intervention, has evolved over time to incorporate idealist elements and respond to criticisms of atomistic man and equality. In contrast, socialism emerged as a response to the exploitative nature of capitalism and focuses on social ownership, fraternity, and collective well-being. Both ideologies continue to be relevant in contemporary politics, with neo-liberalism dominating the global economic landscape and socialism regaining traction as an anti-capitalist movement. The ongoing interplay between these ideologies has significant implications for the future of political theory and the pursuit of social justice.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) of Political Ideologies

What is the main difference between liberal individualism and communitarianism?

Liberal individualism emphasizes the autonomy and freedom of the individual, while communitarianism focuses on the importance of community and cultural context in shaping individuals' values and identity.

How does the concept of equality differ between liberalism and socialism?

Liberalism focuses on moral equality, equality of opportunity, and proportionate equality, while socialism strives for more substantive equality in social and economic terms.

What is the primary distinction between classical liberalism and modern liberalism?

Classical liberalism emphasizes individual freedom and minimal government intervention in society, while modern liberalism incorporates elements of idealism, recognizing the interconnectedness of individuals and the importance of the collective good.

How does neo-liberalism differ from classical and modern liberalism?

Neo-liberalism, also known as market fundamentalism, advocates for rolling back the state and emphasizing market-oriented policies to promote economic growth and stability. It emerged as a reaction to the unsustainability of the welfare state and the rise of bureaucracy.

In what ways has socialism evolved over time, and what is its contemporary relevance?

Socialism has evolved from early, utopian forms to Marxian socialism, which emphasizes revolutionary change, and later peaceful, constitutional forms like Bernstein's socialism and Fabianism. Today, socialism is regaining relevance as an anti-capitalist movement, challenging neo-liberalism and working to make capitalism more humane through the establishment of welfare states.