Post-Mauryan: Growth of Urban Centres, Economy, Coinage | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Growth of Urban Centres and Villages

More is known about cities of c. 200 BCE–300 CE than about villages and agriculture.

Growth of Urban Centers

• During this period, there is seen a growth of urban centres because this phase registered a distinct advance in building activities.
• We find the use of burnt bricks for flooring and roofing, construc­tion of brick kilns, use of script files, and use of red pottery.
• The period c. 200 BCE–300 CE was marked by urban prosperity all over the subcontinent.
• Unfortunately, the archaeological details of most early historical sites are rather meagre and tend to be confined to a few details about fortifications.
• The flourishing trade and crafts and growing use of money was an incentive to the growth of new towns.
• In this period under the Satvahanas, the Kushans, the Indo-Parthians and the Saka rulers, India’s trade with Rome, Central Asia, South-East Asia was at its zenith.

What was the impact and legacy of Maurya ruleon the so-called ‘peripheral areas’, and to what extent was interaction with the Maurya state an impetus to ‘secondary state formation’ in these areas? 
Secondary state formation is the emergence of states which have the model of already existing states before them, and which emerge as a result of interaction with already existent states. While the Maurya impact cannot be discounted, neither should it be given undue emphasis. The long-term development of urban centres required and involved an expansion in agricultural production, developments in specialized crafts, and wider and more intensive and extensive trade networks.

North India:

• Vaishali, Pataliputra, Varanasi, Kausambi, Sravasti, Hastinapur, Mathura, Indraprastha etc. were some of the prosperous towns of North India during the Kushan period. Kushan kings ensured the security of the trade-routes which was one of the causes for the prosperity of these towns.
• These towns find mention in the old Chinese texts or records of Chinese pilgrims.
• The town-sites of Sonpur, Buxur, and Ghazipur in Bihar also flourished during the Kushan age.
• Excavations have unearthed several Kushan towns in Meerut and Muzzaffarnagar districts.
• Ludhiana, Ropar and Jalandhar in the Punjab were among the flourishing towns.
• Ujjain was an important town of the Saka kingdom because it was nodal point of two trade routes – one from Mathura and the other from Kausambi.

Deccan:

• In the Deccan, the transition to the early historical urban phase has to be reconstructed on the basis of archaeology alone, as textual evidence is unavailable.
• During the reign of the Satvahana rulers, several towns flourished. Among them were Paithan, Broach, Sopara, Amravati, Nagarjunakonda, Arikamedu and Kaveripattanam which were highly pros­perous centers of trade.
• Historians often treat the Deccan as a passage between north and South India and explain cultural developments in this region in terms of the diffusion of civilizational traits from elsewhere.
• The impact of Maurya rule and Indo-Roman trade on urbanization in the Deccan have been overemphasized, and insufficient attention has been paid to the internal processes of cultural change.
• Further, within the Deccan, there has been an undue focus on certain areas, especially places where Ashoka’s inscriptions or Buddhist structures have been found, and a neglect of other areas that have been treated as marginal or peripheral.

South:

• The first phase of urbanism in South India is generally associated with the period c. 300 BCE–300 CE, although recent evidence suggests the possibility of earlier beginnings.
• Graeco-Roman sourcesmention many towns and cities and use the term emporium for coastal towns associated with foreign trade.
• The Tamil word pattinam means port, as in Kaverippumpattinam (also known as Puhar).
• Sangam poems describe the urban centres of early historical South India.
• However, archaeological evidence does not match the literary descriptions of cities. This is partly due to inadequate excavations.
• Kodumanal gives important evidence of the transition to the early historical phase in South India, especially with reference to the beginnings of literacy and the development of centres of craft production.
• Champakalakshmi argues that the early historical urbanism of the far south was not induced by deep-rooted socio-economic change, but was stimulated by Indo-Roman trade, interregional trade (largely coastal trade between the Ganga valley, Andhra, and the Tamil regions), and later, by trade with Southeast Asia.
• She argues that trade activity led to the emergence of a few urban enclaves, which declined in the 3rd century along with the trade.
• This hypothesis is difficult to accept as trade cannot be considered an independent variable unrelated to deeper social and economic processes.
• In fact, following things suggest certain fundamental transformations in social and economic life were going on in South India:
• The literary and archaeological evidence of specialized crafts such as metal working, bead making, and weaving;
• the descriptions in the poems of the markets of Puhar and Madurai;
• the references to wealthy traders and their lavish gifts;
• the beginnings of the use of money.

Villages

• More is known about cities of c. 200 BCE–300 CE than about villages and agriculture.
• The Kushans promoted agriculture. The earliest archaeological traces of large-scale irrigation in Pakistan, Afghanistan, and western Central Asia date to the Kushan period.
• The Jatakas speak of gamas ranging from 30–1,000 kulas(extended families).
• There are references to gamasa associated with particular occupational groups such as reed workers (nalakaras) and salt makers (lonakaras). There is also mention of villages of potters, carpenters, smiths, forest folk, hunters, fowlers, and fishermen. Some of these villages seem to have been located close to cities.
• Early Tamil–Brahmi inscriptions offer brief glimpses into aspects of village life in Tamilakam.
• A 2nd century BCE inscription at Varichiyur records the gift of 100 kalams of rice.
• A 1st century BCE inscription at Alagarmalai refers to a koluvanikan (trader in plough shares). The kolu is the hard iron tip fixed to a wooden ploughshare.
• A 2nd century BCE inscription found at Mudalaikulam refers to the construction of a tank by the assembly (ur) of Vempil village. This may be the earliest inscriptional reference to a village assembly in the Indian subcontinent.

Crafts and Guilds

Crafts

• Archaeological evidence provides detailed insights into craft activities across different regions of the Indian subcontinent.
• Kodumanal is significant for its evidence of early literacy and the emergence of craft production centers.
• Inscribed pottery dated around 300 BCE to 200 CE was discovered, primarily in the Tamil language and Tamil–Brahmi script, with some inscriptions in Prakrit and Brahmi script.
• The inscriptions often included names of individuals, some of Tamil origin and others Sanskritic. One notable word found was nikama or nigama, indicating the concept of a guild.

Literary Sources

• Buddhist texts like the Angavijja, Lalitavistara, Milindapanha, and Mahavastu mention various professions, crafts, and guilds of craftsmen and traders.
• The Milindapanha alone lists around 60 different types of crafts.
• Localization of crafts is illustrated in Jataka stories, which mention villages named after the primary profession of their residents, such as potters, carpenters, metal smiths, foresters, hunters, fowlers, fishermen, and salt makers.
• In towns, specific types of craftsmen often lived in concentrated areas or streets dedicated to their craft.

South India:

• Sangam literature from South India reflects a variety of specialized crafts, including weaving, gem working, shell working, and metal working.

Hereditary Principles in Occupations

• The Jataka stories often use the suffix kula(family) or putta(son of) with various craft terms, suggesting a tendency for sons to follow their father’s profession.
• Examples include satthavahakula(family of caravan traders),kumbhakarakula(potters’ family),setthikula(family of merchant-cum-bankers),kammarakula(metal smiths’ family),atavirakkhikakula(family of forest guards),dhannavanijakula(grain merchants’ family),pannikakula(greengrocers’ family), and pasanakottakakula(stone grinders’ family).
• Terms ending in putta include satthavahaputta(son of a caravan trader),nisadaputta(son of a hunter), and vaddhakiputta(son of a carpenter).
• An inscription from Mathura notes the establishment of a stone slab by the Chhandaka brothers, all stone masons (shailalakas), following their father’s profession.
• While occupations were often hereditary, there was likely some degree of flexibility and social mobility.

Inscriptions:

• Inscriptions from various parts of the subcontinent reveal a wide range of craft specializations.
• Tamil–Brahmi inscriptions mention occupations like mason, master mason, carpenter, and goldsmith.
• Donative inscriptions from sites like Sanchi, Bharhut, and Mathura record pious contributions from artisans such as potters, weavers, masons, goldsmiths, carpenters, sculptors, and ivory workers.
• Inscriptions from the western Deccan highlight occupational groups like jewellers(manikara),goldsmiths(suvanakara),blacksmiths(kamara),ironmongers(loha-vanij),perfumers(gadhika), and stone masons(selavadhaki).
• These inscriptions reflect the prosperity of craftsmen, their social status, and their ties to emerging religious centers.

Guilds

• Guilds were associations of people in ancient India who shared the same occupation or craft and lived in the same area. These guilds helped their members by providing support and promoting their specific trades. During the Mauryan Empire (around 320 to 200 BC), guilds played an important role in the economy, with the state actively involved in agricultural and industrial production. The government kept records of guild activities and allocated specific areas in towns for guilds to conduct their trades. The ancient scholar Kautilya recognized the potential of guilds to become powerful entities.
• After the decline of the Mauryan Empire, there was a significant increase in the number and scale of guilds between 200 BC and 300 AD. The political instability following the Mauryan period allowed guilds to grow and thrive. This period also saw improved commercial connections with the Roman Empire, leading to substantial profits for Indian merchants. The discovery of numerous coins from this time indicates progress in the money economy, which was crucial for the development of trade and industry. Evidence suggests that large merchant guilds had some control over smaller craft guilds.

Sources

Literary sources:

• The Jatakas refer to 18 guilds, including woodworkers (vaddhakis), smiths (kammaras), leather workers (chammakaras), and painters (chittakaras).
• The Mahavastu mentions various guilds in Kapilavastu, such as gold workers, ivory carvers, and silk weavers.
• The Manusmriti and Yajnavalkya Smriti indicate an increase in the authority of guilds compared to earlier periods.
• Guilds are mentioned in inscriptions from sites like Sanchi, Bharhut, and Mathura, often in the context of donations made by craftsmen and traders.
• Inscriptions from the western Deccan refer to guilds of weavers, potters, and merchants, among others.
• Notable inscriptions include the gift of a cave by a guild of corn dealers in Junnar and references to guilds of weavers in Nashik.
• Guilds of different crafts, such as potters and oil millers, are mentioned in inscriptions from Nashik.
• Inscriptions from Mangulam near Madurai highlight the high status of merchant guilds and their philanthropic activities.

Head of guild:

• The Jatakas mention the head of a craftspersons’ guild as jetthaka or pamukkha.
• Heads of guilds, such as garland makers (malakara-jetthaka) and metal workers (kammarajetthaka), are also referenced.
• Guild heads were sometimes referred to as setthi, and guild officers had specific qualifications and powers, as described in the Yajnavalkya Smriti.

General economic functions of guilds:

• Guilds played a crucial role in training workers and ensuring a suitable working environment.
• They were responsible for procurement of raw materials, quality control, and pricing of manufactured goods.
• Guilds also identified markets for the sale of goods and provided safety to members and their merchandise.
• The importance of guilds is evident from coins and seals issued by them.
• Dharmashastra texts mention partnerships in craft production and trade, as well as apprenticeship arrangements.

Guilds as bankers:

• Guilds were involved in lending money to artisans and merchants, as mentioned in the Arthashastra.
• They established their reliability and integrity, attracting deposits from the general public and even royalty.
• Guilds acted as trust funds where the principal amount remained intact, and only the interest was used for charitable activities.
• In Mahayana Buddhism, guilds provided necessities for monks.
• Epigraphic evidence shows guilds engaging in philanthropic activities, such as providing shelter for travelers.
• Deposits with guilds were not solely for safety or interest but often for pious purposes.
• Inscriptions highlight investments with guilds for the benefit of Brahmanas or Buddhist monks.

Functions Related to Religious Piety and Charity:

• Guilds were expected to use part of their profits for preservation and maintenance of assembly halls, watersheds, shrines, tanks, and gardens.
• They also helped widows, the poor, and destitute in performing religious rites or alleviating their economic hardships.
• Epigraphic evidence refers to the gifts of gateways, caves, cisterns, pillars, or seats made by guilds or individual members.
• The Mandasor inscription records the building and renovation of a Surya temple by a guild of silk weavers.
• The Gwalior inscription from the reign of Mihirakula mentions the construction of a temple dedicated to this deity.

Judicial functions of guilds:

• Guilds had the authority to try their members for offenses according to their customs and usages, which held almost the same weight as law.
• A guild member was expected to follow both guild and state laws.
• Guilds could also act as arbitrators in disputes between members and their spouses.
• The Brihaspati Smriti mentions guilds administering justice to their members.
• Some guild representatives served in courts presided over by the king, providing advice, especially on matters related to traders and craftsmen.
• Guilds functioned as courts of justice for the general public as well.
• The Yajnavalkya Smriti lists four levels of courts, with guilds being one of them.
• Guild courts were primarily concerned with civil cases, while serious crimes were handled by the king.
• Guilds played a significant role in maintaining order and justice, especially in areas far from the capital.
• Guilds acted as courts for their members, with some acting as courts for the general public.
• Guilds, composed of people from various castes with shared professions, often had Brahmana members who contributed to the court system.

Administrative Functions of guilds:

• Guilds exerted considerable administrative control over their members.
• A member's wife had to seek permission from the guild to join the Buddhist sangha.
• Some guild leaders acted as mahamatras, and guild heads participated in royal courts, possibly in official roles.
• Evidence from the Gupta period shows guild heads as members of district administration advisory boards.

Relationship of guilds with king:

• Guilds had a close relationship with kings, as noted in the Jatakas.
• The Arthashastra advises officials to record guild transactions and provide guilds with designated town areas.
• The king had the right to intervene in guild affairs in certain cases, as per Dharmashastra texts.
• The Manu Smriti and Yajnavalkya Smriti outline the king's role in guild matters, such as resolving disputes and ensuring guild compliance.
• The Mandasor inscription shows that guilds could migrate without facing punishment from the king.

Coins and seals

• Coins from Taxila with the legend negama are from the 3rd/2nd century BCE, with locality names on the obverse.
• Legends pamchanekame and hiranasame on coins are debated as guild or city administration issues.
• pamchanekame may refer to five guilds, while hiranasame could mean a coin issuer.
• Seals with nigama or its variants are found at sites like Rajghat and Ahichchhatra.
• Two copper coins from Kaushambi with the legend gadhikanam are likely from a guild of perfumers.
• Coins from cities like Varanasi and Kaushambi may be issued by city administrations or influential guilds.
• Seals with nigama or variants from Rajghat, Bhita, and other sites date from the 3rd century BCE to early centuries CE.
• Coins feature symbols and personal names, with some seals bearing guild-related legends.
• A sealing from Rajghat with the guild of milkmen gavayaka dates to the 1st century BCE.
• A Bhita sealing with the legend shulaphalayikanam refers to a guild of arrowhead or spearhead makers.
• A seal from Ahichchhatra with the legend kumhakara seniya is from the 1st century CE.