Post-Mauryan Period: Development of Religions | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Introduction

New Forms of Worship and Shrines

• During this period, new devotional practices emerged within Buddhism, Jainism, and early Hinduism. These practices were characterized by the worship and veneration of religious figures such as teachers, saints, gods, and goddesses through the use of images.
• Shrines became central to these new forms of worship. A shrine is a designated sacred space where people gathered for community worship and veneration. The construction of stone shrines during this time marked a shift toward greater permanence and prominence compared to earlier, less durable structures.
• Shrines served not only as places of worship but also as important social spaces where individuals interacted and participated in communal religious activities. Patronizing shrines was seen as an act of piety and also a way to validate social and sometimes political status.

Limitations of Religious Texts as Historical Sources:

• Religious texts are often used as frameworks for constructing the history of religions, but they have limitations. These texts may not accurately reflect popular practices due to their elite authorship and normative nature.
• Some texts are difficult to date, and the beliefs and practices they describe often have earlier origins. Additionally, dominant religious traditions may marginalize or ignore other traditions, leading to a distorted view of their significance.
• Religious texts also may not capture regional or local variations in practices, and there are prevalent practices that are not mentioned at all. Therefore, while texts are valuable sources for understanding the history of religions, they should be considered alongside evidence from archaeology, inscriptions, and coins.

Interactions and Interconnections Among Religions:

• When studying different religions or sects separately, the interactions and contemporaneity of these traditions are often overlooked.Archaeological evidence provides insights into the interconnections and interactions among different religious communities.
• For example, studies of pilgrimage sites in India reveal places that are considered sacred for different reasons by various religious groups. Sculptural motifs and architectural styles associated with ancient religious establishments show a shared pool of auspicious symbols and reflect common practices across sectarian lines.
• However, relationships between different religions or cults could also involve competition and conflict. For instance, the Mathura region between 200 BCE and 300 CE displayed a diverse religious landscape with evidence of Buddhist, Jaina, and Hindu establishments coexisting.
• In South India, sites like Nagarjunakonda in Andhra Pradesh exemplified a heterogeneity of religious practices, with numerous Buddhist, Hindu, and Jaina sites existing side by side.
• In Rajasthan, early Hinduism coexisted with various belief systems and sects, as seen in sites like Bairat, Nagari, and Rairh, reflecting the region's diverse religious landscape during this period.

The period from around 200 BCE to 300 CE witnessed significant developments in religious practices and beliefs in ancient India. The emergence of new devotional practices, the construction of stone shrines, and the coexistence of various religious traditions marked this era. While religious texts provide valuable insights, they have limitations and should be supplemented with archaeological evidence. The interactions and interconnections among different religions, as well as the diversity of religious landscapes in regions like Mathura, South India, and Rajasthan, highlight the dynamic and complex nature of early Indian religious life.

The Worship of Yakshas, Yakshis, Nagas, and Nagis

Yakshas and Yakshis

• Ananda K. Coomaraswamy made a convincing argument that the worship of yakshas, yakshis, nagas, nagis, and goddesses was the foundation for the devotional (bhakti) aspects that later became widespread in Indian religions. He also suggested that the worship of yakshas and yakshis involved temples, puja (devotional worship with offerings), and a specific cult.
• Yakshas were deities associated with water, fertility, trees, forests, and wilderness. Literary and sculptural evidence shows the transformation of yakshas from benevolent, powerful deities to frightening, demonic figures, shifting their focus from wealth to fertility.
• Yakshis, the female counterparts of yakshas, were initially benign deities linked with fertility. Many shalabhanjikas, sculptures of women grasping a tree branch, across various religious sites were actually representations of yakshis.
• Yakshas and yakshis appear in Brahmanical, Buddhist, and Jaina texts, often depicted as demonic creatures. Their worship, initially widespread, was later absorbed and marginalized by dominant religious traditions. However, their frequent mention indicates their past popularity.
• Imposing Images and Importance in Religious Landscape During the period of 300 BCE–200 CE, yakshas and yakshis remained significant in the religious landscape. While often described as minor rural folk cults, evidence suggests otherwise.
• Imposing stone images of yakshas and yakshis from Mathura and elsewhere were products of urban workshops for urban clients. These figures reflect iconographic conventions and community worship in shrines.
• Yaksha figures from Besnagar and Pawaya in Madhya Pradesh, holding money bags, indicate their association with wealth.
• The colossal figure of yaksha Manibhadra from Parkham near Mathura was a tutelary deity of merchants and travelers, especially in trading centers. The worship of female deities linked with fertility and childbirth, protectresses of children, was an important aspect of popular religious practice across India. In the early historical period, such functions were associated with yakshis.
• Smaller Images While large stone statues of yakshas and yakshis indicate public community worship, smaller stone and terracotta images suggest private, domestic worship.
• In the Mathura area, colossal images of yakshas and yakshis disappeared around the turn of the millennium, but small statues continued to be found in large numbers, indicating their ongoing importance as objects of worship in the domestic sphere.

Nagas and Nagis

• The worship of serpents—nagas and nagis (or naginis)—was another significant aspect of religious devotion that transcended religious boundaries. Nagas and nagis were associated with water and fertility. Like yakshas and yakshis, they were originally the focus of exclusive worship but were eventually absorbed into dominant religions.
• Colossal naga figures from the early centuries CE have been discovered in various locations, demonstrating their imposing nature and technical finesse, indicating they were not merely representations of a simple folk or village cult.
• One of the most impressive examples is a seven-hooded naga image found at Mathura, dated to the early 2nd century CE. An inscription from the Jamalpur mound at Mathura indicates the existence of a shrine dedicated to Dadhikarna, lord of the nagas, and records a gift made in its honor by the Chhandaka brothers, a family of stone masons from Mathura.
• The significance of the naga cult is evident from the remains of an elaborate brick and stone naga temple at Sonkh near Mathura, with structural phases dating from the 1st century BCE to the 2nd century CE. Remains of a naga temple at Maniyar Math near Rajagriha, with its earliest phase dating to the 2nd/1st century BCE, have also been found.
• Large numbers of naga images are found throughout the subcontinent. In the central Deccan, sites like Peddabankur and Kotalingala have yielded numerous yaksha and naga figurines, as well as female figurines of possible cultic significance, despite the absence of Hindu/Brahmanical temples or sculptures.
• Many individuals and villages mentioned in inscriptions were named after nagas and yakshas. Like yakshas and yakshis, nagas and nagis were gradually displaced from their positions of importance in urban public worship, but their worship continued to be significant, as evidenced by small stone and terracotta statuettes.
• The story of Krishna subduing Kaliya naga can be seen as an allegorical representation of the eventual triumph of Vishnuism over the once-popular naga cult.

Goddesses, Votive Tanks, and Shrines

Goddesses

• The significance of female terracotta images in religious contexts is subjective and depends on their appearance, attributes, and the context in which they are found.
• Some goddesses were invoked for specific purposes such as fertility, prosperity, childbirth, protection of children, and protection against disease.
• Archaeological evidence from sites like Mathura shows the worship of goddesses between 200 BCE and 300 CE.Goddess figurines from this period display greater stylistic refinement and technical innovations compared to earlier ones.
• These figurines typically feature prominent breasts,broad hips, and various ornaments such as necklaces, bracelets, earrings, and girdles. Some are adorned with elaborate headdresses.

Votive Tanks and Shrines

• Female figurines are sometimes found with terracotta artefacts known as votive tanks and shrines, reported from various sites across the subcontinent.
• These objects, dating from the 3rd century BCE to the 3rd century CE, were part of domestic rituals for over a millennium.
• Votive tanks and shrines vary in shape and size and often feature a lotus plant, figures of a snake,frog, or fish, and female figures carrying a child and a bowl.
• These tanks and shrines were likely intended to be filled with water and are connected with the worship of goddesses and nagas.

Vedic Rituals

• During the period of c. 200 BCE–300 CE, Vedic rituals remained significant, as evidenced by rulers like Pushyamitra Shunga and certain Satavahana and Ikshvaku kings who claimed to have performed them.
• Sacrificial posts (yupas) are depicted on coins, and clay seals from places like Sambhar show yupas associated with Vedic rituals.
• From the 3rd century CE onward,Sanskrit inscriptions on stone yupas from Rajasthan indicate the performance of Vedic sacrifices, such as the ashvamedha yajna.
• Excavations at Mathura uncovered remnants of sacrifices, including pits with ash, animal bones, and pottery.
• Inscriptions and remains from sites like Kaushambi,Uttarkashi, and Sanghol demonstrate the continuation of Vedic sacrifices as a means of political legitimation for rulers.
• However, there was a shift in popular practice away from a sacrifice-centered religion during this period.

Puranic Hinduism

Hinduism: A Brief Overview:

• The term 'Hinduism' is relatively modern, first used by Raja Ram Mohun Roy in 1816-17.
• 'Hindu' comes from the Sindhu (Indus) river, initially a geographical term in ancient Persian, later acquiring a religious-cultural connotation.
• Unlike other major religions, Hinduism has no single founder, fixed canon, or organized priesthood, characterized by a wide variety of beliefs, practices, and traditions.
• Some scholars view Hinduism as a set of socio-cultural practices, while others see it as linked to caste or argue for the existence of multiple Hindu religions.

Formation of Early Hindu Pantheons:

• Between c. 200 BCE and 300 CE, various sources indicate the emergence of certain devotional practices associated with Hinduism, marking the formative phase of early Hindu pantheons.
• Deities that became central to worship during this period are known from Vedic literature but evolved into powerful supreme deities with installed and worshipped images in temples and homes.
• Theistic trends of this time can be traced to the later Upanishads and are more clearly visible in texts like the Mahabharata, Ramayana, Bhagavad Gita, and the Puranas.
• Archaeological evidence such as sites, sculptures, coins, and inscriptions sometimes indicate earlier beginnings of these practices than suggested by texts.

Early Textual References to Image Worship:

• Early texts like the Baudhayana Grihyasutra and Gautama Dharmasutra mention the worship of deity images in various contexts.
• Patanjali’s Mahabhashya refers to images of deities like Shiva, Skanda, and Vishakha.

Arthashastra and Temple Construction:

• The Arthashastra advises the construction of temples for guardian and family deities, as well as shrines for various groups' tutelary gods.
• It also discusses temple property, including images, crops, cattle, and other assets.

Inscriptional and Archaeological Evidence of Early Hindu Temples:

• The earliest references and remains of Hindu temples date back to c. 200 BCE-300 CE.
• Inscriptions like the Besnagar pillar inscription of Heliodorus and various Nagari inscriptions mention early temples dedicated to deities like Vishnu, Samkarshana, and Vasudeva.
• Archaeological remains of temples dedicated to the Matrikas, Lakshmi, Shiva, and Vishnu at sites like Sonkh, Atranjikhera, Gudimallam, and Nagarjunakonda are among the earliest vestiges of Hindu temples.

Marginalization of Popular Cults:

• Sites like Mathura show that popular cults of yakshas, nagas, and nagis were gradually marginalized by Brahmanical deities.
• Cults associated with the worship of gods like Shiva and Vishnu and the goddess Durga became more influential during this period.

Complementary Functions of Hindu Gods:

• Despite the rise of sectarian cults focusing on a single supreme deity, there was also a trend in which Hindu gods were seen as performing complementary functions.
• The triad of Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva, seen in the Mahabharata and Puranas, exemplifies this, with each god associated with different principles and roles in the cosmic order.
• This idea of complementary functions sometimes blurred into the notion of gods being different manifestations of the same divine being.
• The concept of polytheism (belief in many gods) and monolatry (belief in a supreme god while acknowledging other gods) reflects the emerging Hinduism of this period.

Shivaism

Early References and Vedic Literature:

• The word "shiva," meaning auspicious, appears in the Rig Veda but not as a deity's name. However, the god Rudra, often seen as a precursor to Shiva, is mentioned as a fierce and feared figure.
• In later Vedic texts, Rudra is associated with snakes, poison, and cremation grounds. The Shatarudriya hymn in the Vajasaneyi Samhita describes Rudra-Shiva as a powerful god, while the Shvetashvatara Upanishad elevates him as the lord of all gods and the god of destruction.
• The Mahabhashya connects Rudra-Shiva with medicinal herbs and animal sacrifices, indicating his significance in early Hindu practices.

The Pashupata Sect:

• The Pashupata sect is considered one of the earliest Shaiva sects, with mystic and ascetic elements. Different texts attribute its founding to figures like Lakulin, Nakulin, or Shrikantha.
• Shiva's various forms, such as Chandrashekhara (the moon-crowned god), Gangadhara (the supporter of the Ganga), and Ardhanarishvara (the half-woman god), reflect his diverse aspects.

Shiva in Linga Form:

• Shiva's linga form symbolizes male procreative energy and power. Phallic worship in the Indian subcontinent likely dates back to Harappan times.
• The Rig Veda mentions disapproval of phallic worship, but by around 200 BCE to 200 CE, it became associated with Shiva.
• Sculptural representations of stone Shiva lingas emerged in the 2nd century BCE, with early examples like the architectural fragment from Bhuteshwar in Mathura.
• Mukhalingas, or lingas with carved faces of Shiva, gained popularity during this period. Anthropomorphic Shiva images from the 1st and 2nd centuries CE show a diverse iconographic base.
• Coins from Taxila and Ujjain feature phallic emblems, with some depicting Shiva, the bull, and the trident.
• The worship of Karttikeya, Shiva's son, is reflected in coins and artifacts from this period.

Shiva in Sangam Literature:

• Shiva is recognized in the Sangam literature of Tamilakam, where he is referred to as the three-eyed god with distinct physical features and Uma as his consort.
• Murugan, a significant god in South India, is integrated into Shiva's family as Skanda-Karttikeya, further linking regional deities to the broader Shaiva tradition.

Formation of the Vaishnava Pantheon

• The Rig Veda includes five hymns dedicated to Vishnu, where he is associated with solar deities and depicted as a powerful god residing in the mountains.
• Later Vedic texts, like the Taittiriya Samhita and Shatapatha Brahmana, link Vishnu with the dwarf (symbolizing cleverness and spiritual achievement) and the earth.
• The evolution of Vishnuism involved the gradual unification of initially separate cults dedicated to deities like Narayana, Vasudeva Krishna, Shri, and Lakshmi. The prominence of Vishnu appears to be a later development, coinciding with the Brahmanization of these cults.

Narayana:

• The Narayana cult was a significant component eventually integrated into Vishnuism. Some scholars propose that Narayana was originally a non-Vedic deity.
• Narayana is mentioned in the Rig Veda and Shatapatha Brahmana and is associated with a five-day sacrifice called the pancharatra sattra, which supposedly granted him superiority over all beings and identity with them.
• Narayana also seems to have been linked with asceticism. In the Mahabharata, he is described as a great yogi and identified with Vishnu, often referred to as Narayana rather than Vishnu.
• One of the remarkable early representations of Narayana is a colossal image discovered at Mathura.

Vasudeva Krishna:

• The worship of Vasudeva Krishna appears to have originated in the Mathura region.
• The Ashtadhyayi describes the term Vasudevaka as one whose object of bhakti is Vasudeva, marking the earliest reference to devotion to Vasudeva, although the exact meaning of bhakti in this context remains uncertain.
• Megasthenes notes that the Sourasenoi in the Mathura region worshipped Herakles, likely referring to Vasudeva Krishna, who bore the closest resemblance to the Greek god Herakles.
• The Chhandogya Upanishad mentions a sage named Krishna Devakiputra(son of Devaki), a pupil of rishi Ghora Angirasa.
• In the Mahabharata, Vasudeva Krishna serves as the ally and adviser of the Pandavas. In the Bhagavad Gita, he drives Arjuna’s chariot, persuading him that it is his dharma to fight, and reveals himself as an avatara of Vishnu.
• The first detailed account of Krishna’s life story is found in the Harivamsha, an appendix to the Mahabharata.
• Puranas such as the Vishnu,Padma,Brahmavaivarta, and Bhagavata provide additional details about Krishna’s life in Vrindavana.
• Krishna’s association with Radha became prominent much later, in the 11th–12th centuries. Radha is not mentioned in the 10th-century Bhagavata Purana, while the 12th-century Gita Govinda of Jayadeva celebrates the love of Radha and Krishna.

Vrishni Clan:

• The legends surrounding Vasudeva Krishna may have originated from a historical figure belonging to the Vrishni clan in the Mathura area.
• Vasudeva Krishna was one of five heroes (pancha-vira) worshiped by the Vrishnis of the Mathura area:
• Samkarshana(also known as Balarama, son of Vasudeva by Rohini),
• Vasudeva(son of Vasudeva by Devaki),
• Pradyumna(son of Vasudeva by Rukmini),
• Samba(son of Vasudeva by Jambavati), and
• Aniruddha(son of Pradyumna).
• Many kinship triads depicting Vasudeva Krishna, his brother Baladeva, and their sister Ekanamsha, dated to the early centuries CE, have been discovered in the Mathura area.
• The relative size of the figures indicates that Baladeva was initially considered more important than Krishna.
• An inscription found at Mora in the Mathura district refers to the installation of images of the five heroes by a woman named Tosha during the reign of Shodasa(late 1st century BCE–early 1st century CE).
• The rapid spread of the worship of Vasudeva Krishna beyond the Mathura region is supported by epigraphic evidence.
• The Besnagar pillar inscription describes Heliodorus, the Greek ambassador to the Shunga court, as a bhagavata, a worshipper of Lord Vasudeva Krishna.
• A 2nd century BCE inscription found at Nagari in Rajasthan mentions a temple of Samkarshana and Vasudeva.
• A 1st century BCE inscription from Gosundi in Chittorgarh district, Rajasthan, records the construction of a stone enclosure for the place of worship in honor of Samkarshana and Balarama by a person described as a bhagavata.
• In the early centuries CE, there was a significant increase in the number and variety of Vaishnava images produced in the Mathura area. Representations of Vasudeva Krishna are the most numerous, but there are also many small stone statuettes of Vishnu(usually four-armed),Vishnu on Garuda, and Vishnu in the form of a partly anthropomorphic Varaha(boar).
• 2nd century BCE coins of the Indo-Greek king Agathocles found at Aï-Khanoum in Afghanistan depict Krishna and Balarama.

Abhira Tribe:

• The pastoral tales of Krishna’s childhood may have originated from legends of a god worshiped by the Abhira tribe.
• The Abhiras are believed to have been a foreign tribe that entered India around the 1st century BCE. Initially settled in the Punjab, they later migrated to the lower Indus valley, then to Saurashtra and the western Deccan.
• In the Padma Purana, Vishnu declares that he will be born among the Abhiras in his eighth incarnation.
• The erotic tales of Krishna and the gopis(cowherd girls), as narrated in texts like the Harivamsha and Vishnu Purana, may have originated from similar sources.

Samkarshana Balarama:

• The worship of Samkarshana Balarama, initially popular in the Mathura region and beyond, was eventually overshadowed by the cult centered around his younger brother Vasudeva Krishna.
• The Mahabhashya mentions temples dedicated to Balarama.
• The Arthashastra refers to Samkarshana’s fondness for alcohol and suggests that his devotees practiced ritual drinking. The Puranas also highlight this aspect of Samkarshana’s character.
• Samkarshana appears to have been linked with snake worship. Images depict a snake canopy over his head, and the Mahabharata mentions him as an incarnation of Sheshanaga(the great snake on whose coils Vishnu rests).
• He is associated with agricultural operations, as indicated by his name (samkarshana means ploughing) and epithets such as Haladhara(wielder of the plough) and Musalin(one who wields the pestle).
• Several Puranas, including the Vishnu, Harivamsha, and Bhagavata, recount the story of how Samkarshana Balarama diverted the Yamuna by pulling it with his ploughshare.

Goddess Shri Lakshmi:

• The Vaishnava pantheon also incorporated the goddess Shri Lakshmi.
• The Shri Sukta, a supplement to the Rig Veda, describes Shri as a moon-like, golden deer adorned with ornaments and also invokes her as Lakshmi. However, some references in later Vedic texts, such as the Vajasaneyi Samhita and Taittiriya Aranyaka, suggest that Shri and Lakshmi were initially distinct goddesses.
• ‘Shri’ denotes well-being or prosperity, and the goddess of this name may have originally been a fertility goddess.‘Lakshmi’ means sign, token, or mark, and the goddess of this name seems to have been associated with signs of prosperity and luck.
• By around the 3rd/4th century CE,Shri Lakshmi was integrated into the Vaishnava pantheon as Vishnu’s consort. Both the Mahabharata and Ramayana acknowledge her in this role, with the Puranas elaborating on her association with Vishnu.
• At Sonkh, a relief carving of Lakshmi on an architectural fragment was discovered at pre-Kushana levels, considered the oldest stone sculpture at the site. Lakshmi is depicted on numerous stone images from this period.
• Lakshmi also appears on a terracotta plaque discovered at late NBPW levels in an apsidal temple at Atranjikhera.
• One of the common representations of Shri Lakshmi in sculpture is her Gaja-Lakshmi form, where she sits or stands on a lotus, flanked by two elephants pouring water over her from pitchers held in their upraised trunks.
• Coins: Gaja-Lakshmi is often depicted on coins. She appears on coins of the Shunga king Jyesthamitra and those of the Scytho-Parthian kings Azes II and Azilises. She also appears on 1st century BCE coins of kings of Ayodhya—Vayudeva, Vishakhadeva, and Shivadatta. In the Mathura area, coins of Rajuvula,Shodasa, and Toranadasa feature the Gaja-Lakshmi motif. The goddess is also clearly visible on a 1st century BCE coin from Ujjain.
• At Buddhist sites, a female figure seated on a lotus is a recurring sculptural motif at sites like Sanchi,Bharhut, and Bodh Gaya. This motif is likely the Gaja-Lakshmi motif with a new meaning—Maya giving birth to the Buddha.
• In South India, references to Lakshmi’s form carved on doors in the Sangam text Pattuppattu indicate that this goddess had come to be associated with auspiciousness.

Idea of Avataras:

• The concept of avataras is a significant doctrine within Vaishnavism. The term avatara derives from the root avatri, meaning to descend.
• In the Rig Veda, gods like Indra possess the ability to take on different forms. However, the Vaishnava notion of avataras goes beyond Vishnu’s capacity to assume various forms at different times. The Gita explicitly states that he does so for a specific purpose—to eliminate evil and uphold dharma.
• The number of Vishnu’s avataras is conventionally considered as ten, although some names vary across different texts. For example, the Vayu Purana lists Narayana, Narasimha, Vamana, Datt.

Shakti Worship

The worship of goddesses linked to fertility is one of the oldest and most persistent aspects of religious practice in the Indian subcontinent.
Later Vedic Texts:

• During the 1st millennium, the Puranas attempted to unify various goddesses, presenting them as different forms of the female principle known as Shakti.
• The Durga-Gayatri in the Taittiriya Aranyaka is the earliest mention of goddesses like Katyayani,Kanyakumari, and Durga, who later became central to Shakti worship.
• Durga is depicted as a dynamic and vigorous goddess, described as the daughter of the sun or fire, with a fiery complexion, burning with austerities, and sought after for the rewards of rituals.
• The Maitrayaniya Samhita of the Black Yajur Veda references the Gayatri mantras dedicated to various Puranic deities, including Girisuta-Gauri, the mountain goddess.
• The Mundaka Upanishad mentions Kali and Karali as two of the seven tongues of Agni (fire), with these goddesses later described in the Puranas as terrifying forms of Durga.
• Later Vedic texts also mention Bhavani(the female form of Bhava, i.e., Shiva) and Bhadrakali(the auspicious and peaceful aspect of Kali).
• The increasing reverence for Durga worship is evident in the epics. In the Mahabharata, figures like Yudhishthira and Arjuna recite hymns in praise of Durga.
• The Periplus, an ancient text, refers to a place called Comari associated with the worship of a goddess, likely referring to Kanyakumari.
• The Harivamsha(Vishnu Parva) features the Arya-stava, a hymn in praise of Durga, addressing her by various names and describing her associations with nature, tribes, and her protective qualities.

Devi-Mahatmya:

• The Devi-Mahatmya, incorporated into the Markandeya Purana around the 7th century BCE, extols the goddess (Devi) and narrates her exploits against demons.
• One notable story involves the demon Mahishasura, a buffalo demon who defeated the gods. The goddess, born from the collective energy of the gods, defeats him after a fierce battle.

Mahishasuramardini:

• Despite the Devi-Mahatmya being a later text, sculptural evidence shows the worship of Durga Mahishasuramardini was popular much earlier.
• The Mathura region has numerous stone images of Durga, including Mahishasuramardini, dating from c. 200 BCE to 300 CE.
• At Sonkh, a stone plaque from the late 1st century BCE to early 1st century CE possibly depicts Durga as Mahishasuramardini.
• A stone Matrika plaque may have been a central cult image at Apsidal temple no. 1 at Sonkh, with many terracotta plaques of Durga as Mahishasuramardini found in and around this temple.

The Rise of Mahayana Buddhism

The period between approximately 200 BCE and 300 CE in Indian Buddhism marks the emergence of Mahayana Buddhism. This era followed the post-Maurya period, where Indian religions evolved due to increased trade, artisanal activity, and a significant influx of people from Central Asia. Buddhism, in particular, experienced notable changes.

Changes in Monastic Life:

• Monastic Adaptation: Buddhist monks and nuns adapted to the growing influence of traders and artisans. They began accepting cash donations, which became crucial for their sustenance.
• Foreign Influence: Buddhists welcomed foreign followers, including non-vegetarians, leading to a relaxation of strict dietary rules.
• Shift in Practices: As a result of these changes, monks and nuns started accepting gold and silver, consuming non-vegetarian food, and wearing more elaborate robes. This leniency in discipline led some renunciates to abandon monastic life and return to household living.

Patronage and Council of Kanishka:

• Kanishka's Support: The Mahayana school received significant support from Kanishka, a prominent ruler. He convened a council in Kashmir, where members composed extensive commentaries on the three pitakas (collections of Buddhist literature).
• Preservation of Texts: Kanishka had these commentaries engraved on red copper sheets, enclosed them in a stone receptacle, and raised stupas to preserve and honor the Buddha’s teachings.

Shift in Worship Practices:

• Transition to Image Worship: The transition from worshipping symbols associated with the Buddha to the veneration of his images marked a significant shift in Buddhist practices. This shift, which began around the start of the Christian era, was initially unique to Buddhism but later became prevalent in Brahmanism as well.
• Distinction between Mahayana and Hinayana: The rise of Mahayana Buddhism led to the older puritan school being termed Hinayana, with the Mahayanists coining these terms.

Origin and Development of Mahayana

• Mahasanghika Influence: The origins of Mahayana are often traced back to the Mahasanghika school. Earlier views suggested that the emergence of Mahayana caused a significant split in the sangha (monastic community), but recent scholarship questions this perspective.
• Sangha Unity: In the Buddhist tradition, schism was more about monastic discipline than doctrinal differences. The emergence of Mahayana did not lead to an immediate division in the sangha. Mahayana ideas were initially developed by a group of monks within the sangha, not as a lay movement.
• Coexistence of Traditions: Monks of different doctrinal views, including Mahayana and non-Mahayana, cohabited in the same monasteries. This coexistence is confirmed by historical accounts from Chinese pilgrims such as Faxian and Xuanzang, who noted the collaborative living of both groups.

Expansion and Translation of Mahayana Texts:

• Translation into Chinese: Several Mahayana Sutras were translated into Chinese in the late 2nd century CE, reflecting the spread of Mahayana thought beyond India.
• Composition of Sutras: The earliest Mahayana Sutras are believed to have been composed in the 2nd century BCE, claiming to represent the teachings of the Buddha and drawing on earlier traditions. For example, the Lalitavistara incorporates passages from the Pali canon.
• Use of Sanskrit: Sanskrit became increasingly prominent in Mahayana texts, with important Sutras like the Prajnaparamita Sutras, particularly the Ashtasahasrika, gaining significance during this period.

Historical Sources of Mahayana:

• Classic Expositions: Mahayana received its classic interpretations through thinkers like Nagarjuna, Aryadeva, Asanga, and Vasubandhu, whose works provided foundational insights into Mahayana philosophy.
• Accounts of Chinese Pilgrims: The records of Chinese pilgrims who traveled to India offer valuable perspectives on the history and practices of Mahayana Buddhism during its formative years.
• Archaeological Evidence: Inscriptions and archaeological findings from Buddhist monastic sites further illuminate the history and spread of Mahayana Buddhism in India.

The Bodhisattva Ideal in Mahayana

• Evolution of the Bodhisattva Concept: While the concept of the bodhisattva (a being aspiring to Buddhahood) existed in earlier Buddhism, it gained greater prominence in Mahayana. For instance, Gotama Buddha is said to have vowed to become a bodhisattva in a previous life.
• Shift in Goals: Older Buddhism emphasized the attainment of nibbana (nirvana) and becoming an arhat (enlightened being) as the ultimate goals. In contrast, Mahayana regarded the path of a bodhisattva and the pursuit of Buddhahood as superior.
• Distinction between Arhat and Bodhisattva: The arhat seeks personal nibbana and exits the cycle of samsara, while the bodhisattva, having attained great wisdom, chooses to remain in samsara to help others achieve nibbana. Great compassion (maha-karuna) for others is central to the bodhisattva ideal.
• Path to Buddhahood: The practices leading to Buddhahood in Mahayana were similar to those in earlier traditions. The stages along the bodhisattva path involve attaining various perfections known as paramitas.

Paramitas in Mahayana

• Generosity (dana): Practicing selflessness and sharing resources with others.
• Good Conduct (shila): Upholding ethical and moral standards in actions and behavior.
• Patient Forbearance (kshanti): Exercising patience and tolerance in the face of challenges and adversity.
• Mental Strength (virya): Cultivating mental resilience and determination in pursuing spiritual goals.
• Meditation (dhyana): Engaging in meditative practices to develop concentration and mindfulness.
• Wisdom (prajna): Attaining deep understanding and insight into the nature of reality.
• Skilfulness in Means (upaya-kaushalya): Employing skillful methods to help others effectively.
• Determination (pranidhana): Exhibiting strong resolve and commitment to spiritual objectives.
• Power (bala): Developing spiritual powers and capabilities.
• Knowledge (jnana): Gaining profound knowledge and understanding.

Buddha in Early and Mahayana Buddhism

• Perception of Buddha: In early Buddhism, the Buddha was seen as a man who achieved enlightenment and became an arhat, a superior teacher guiding others on the path to salvation. Only one Buddha could exist at a time, with the next appearing only after the teachings of the previous one had faded. After death, the Buddha exited the cycle of samsara.
• Mahayana's Perspective: Mahayana emphasized the distinction between an arhat and a Buddha, introducing the concept of transcendent Buddhas and bodhisattvas who exist between nibbana and samsara. It recognized multiple Buddhas and bodhisattvas, such as Maitreya, Avalokiteshvara, and Manjushri, each working for the salvation of sentient beings in their respective "Buddha-fields."

Madhyamaka School

• Founder: Nagarjuna (2nd century CE).
• Key Work: Mula-Madhyamaka-Karika (Root Verses on the Middle).
• Concept of Shunyata: Central to Nagarjuna's work, shunyata (emptiness) means that permanent selves and substances do not exist. Dharmas, the basic elements of mind and matter, are empty, as they do not exist independently.
• Later Thinkers: Aryadeva, Buddhapalita, Bhavaviveka, Chandrakirti, Shantideva.

Yogachara School

• Associated Texts: Samdhinirmochana and Lankavatara Sutras.
• Focus: Meditation as a means to attain the highest goal and detailed analysis of consciousness.
• Levels of Consciousness: Active consciousness (six types), defiled mind (klishta-manas), and store consciousness (alaya-vijnana).
• Implication: Ordinary experiences are constructs of the mind. By following the bodhisattva path, defilement and illusion are eliminated, leading to perfect clarity and knowledge.
• Founder: Maitreyanatha.
• Notable Exponents: Asanga, Vasubandhu, Sthiramati, Dharmakirti.

Impact on Popular Practice

• Worship of Images: Mahayana shifted the focus of popular practice to the worship of Buddhas and bodhisattvas through images in shrines. While older Buddhism valued the veneration of stupas and relics, Mahayana emphasized devotion to Buddhas and bodhisattvas as central.
• Shift in Veneration: As seen in sculptures from various Buddhist sites, there was a transition from venerating symbols of Buddha Sakyamuni to worshipping images of multiple Buddhas and bodhisattvas.

Role of Women in Buddhism

• Perception of Women: Mahayana texts reflect both negative and positive images of women, revealing how men viewed themselves in relation to women. Women are depicted as mysterious, sensual, dangerous, weak, wise, maternal, gentle, compassionate, and creative.
• Concerns about Women's Renunciation: Although women could pursue the path of renunciation, texts often express anxiety about women leaving their households to become nuns.
• Paths to Bodhisattva-hood: Mahayana texts present two paths for women to attain bodhisattva-hood. Some Sutras assert that a woman must be reborn as a man to enter this path, while others narrate miraculous sex changes, such as the story in the Saddharmapundarika Sutra about an 8-year-old bodhisattva girl whose sex changed upon the prophecy of her Buddhahood.
• Information on Bhikkhuni Sangha: Evidence regarding the bhikkhuni sangha (order of nuns) during this period is limited. Nuns are mentioned as donors in inscriptions, but there is a lack of records about specific bhikkhuni monastic centers.
• Disparity in Patronage: The male monastic order enjoyed significantly more patronage than the female order. The absence of inscriptions recording donations to the bhikkhuni sangha contributed to the decline of the latter.

Monastic and Lay Practices in Texts Versus Inscriptions

Archaeological and epigraphic evidence play a crucial role in understanding the history of Buddhism. Relying solely on textual sources can be misleading, as scholars often assume that these texts were widely known and significant. However, it is possible that some texts were not familiar to most Buddhist monks or laypersons. There are numerous practices documented through archaeology that are either absent from texts or not discussed in detail.

Burial Practices:

• Texts offer limited information on the burial customs of monastic communities.
• Archaeological evidence reveals the establishment of stupas, indicating the growth of a complex stupa cult.
• Stupas were erected not only to house relics of the Buddha but also to honor important monks. Nearby smaller votive stupas contained the funerary remains of devoted laypeople.
• Our understanding of these mortuary practices comes primarily from archaeological findings and inscriptions.

Owning Property

• Buddhist texts suggest that when a monk joined the sangha, he left behind all his possessions, including property.
• However, inscriptions reveal instances of monks and nuns making donations to stupa-monastery complexes, indicating that they retained some control over their property even after joining the sangha.

Handling Money:

• Texts state that members of the sangha were not allowed to handle money.
• Despite this, archaeological sites like Sanchi have uncovered coins and semi-precious stones beneath monastic cells.
• Notably, lead coins were discovered in a monastery at Nagarjunakonda, along with an earthenware die for minting coins, suggesting that monks were involved in coin production, though the legality of this practice remains uncertain.

Idea of the Transference of Merit:

• Karma and dana are significant concepts in the Buddhist textual tradition.
• However, numerous donative inscriptions from early Buddhist sites reflect the widespread notion of merit transference, which is not found in early texts.
• This idea posits that the meritorious outcomes of one person's actions can be transferred to another.
• Inscriptions from sites like Sanchi and Bharhut often specify that donations were made for the benefit of the donor's parents or for the welfare of all beings, a concept even present in Hinayana inscriptions.

No Sharp Distinctions Between Monastic and Lay Practices:

• Epigraphic evidence indicates that the boundaries between monastic and lay practices were not as rigid as previously thought.
• Gift-giving was a significant activity for both the laity and the monastic community.
• Monks and nuns actively participated in the stupa cult alongside laypeople.

The Digambara-Shvetambara Schism in Jainism

Historical Context and Migration:

• The schism between the Digambara and Shvetambara sects within Jainism is believed to have occurred around 300 CE.
• According to the Digambara tradition, the split was caused by a southward migration of Jaina monks due to an impending famine.
• The leader of this group was Bhadrabahu, who, along with his followers, spent 12 years in the Karnataka region.
• After Bhadrabahu's death, his followers returned to Pataliputra in Magadha, where they found significant changes.

Differences in Practices:

• Upon their return, the northern monks, led by Sthulabhadra, had codified the canon and adopted the practice of wearing clothes.
• The southern monks viewed this change as unacceptable, interpreting it as a retention of shame and a violation of the ascetic principle of renouncing all possessions.
• The returning group became known as the Digambaras, while the northern monks, who wore white clothes, were called the Shvetambaras.

Rejection and Codification:

• The Digambaras rejected the canon compiled by Sthulabhadra and condemned the Shvetambaras as false Jainas (Jainabhasa).
• The Shvetambaras attributed the origin of the Digambara sect to a monk named Shivabhuti, who reintroduced monastic nudity and became its founder.

Gradual Change in Practices:

• Archaeological and inscriptional evidence indicates a gradual shift among Jaina monks from total nudity to wearing clothes, rather than a sudden split as suggested by the sects.
• Early images of tirthankaras from Mathura depict them as naked, with clothed images appearing only in the 5th century CE.
• An inscription from the late 5th century CE refers to the Shvetambaras but uses the older term ‘Nirgrantha’ for naked monks, suggesting that the term Digambara was not yet widely used.

Council of Valabhi and the Yapaniya Sect:

• The council of Valabhi in the 5th century may have solidified the divide between Shvetambaras and Digambaras, as it was exclusively attended by Shvetambara monks.
• The early medieval Yapaniya sect reflects a transitional phase where monks were generally naked but covered their private parts with cloth during almsgiving or in the presence of laity.
• Over time, Shvetambaras became predominant in western India, while Digambaras established a strong presence in the south.

Shravakachara Literature:

• A series of tracts on shravakachara, starting from the 2nd century CE Charitraprabhrita of Kundakunda to the 17th century Dharmasangrahatika of Yashovijaya, outlined the conduct for Jaina laity.
• These texts emphasized the importance of keeping various vows and provided guidelines for expiation in case of vow violations.
• They also included the shravaka-pratima, which offered a systematic approach for lay individuals to prepare for complete renunciation.
• The only comparable Theravada Buddhist text is the 12th century Upasakajanalamkara of Ananda.

Culmination of Brahmanical Samskaras:

• Jainas, like Buddhists, initially adhered to Brahmanical samskaras.
• In the early medieval period, Jinasena attempted to codify samskaras for the Jaina laity, providing a new Jaina interpretation of what were essentially Brahmanical samskaras.

Temple Cult and Lay Rituals:

• In the early centuries CE, Jaina lay practice witnessed the emergence of a temple cult and lay rituals.
• A naked and headless stone torso, possibly representing a Jaina tirthankara, was found at Lohanipur (near Patna) and tentatively dated to the Maurya period, marking the earliest known Jaina image.
• Numerous Jaina images from various sites dating back to around 200 BCE indicate the development of the Jaina temple cult.
• Unlike Buddhism, where monks controlled shrines, Jaina temple cults developed independently of monastic authority.
• In present-day Digambara Jaina shrines, priests typically conduct puja, whereas in Shvetambara temples, laypeople play a significant role in this ritual.
• Lay rituals, including rites of passage, did not involve monks or any intermediary priestly class.

Significant Centers of Jainism:

• Several important centers of Jainism emerged during this period.
• The 1st century BCE Hathigumpha inscription of the Kalinga king Kharavela marks the earliest epigraphic reference to image worship in Jainism.
• The Udayagiri and Khandagiri caves in Orissa are among the oldest enduring centers of Jaina monasticism.
• The abundance of Jaina images and inscriptions from the Mathura region indicates the popularity of Jainism there.
• The discovery of remnants of a Jaina stupa at Kankali Tila in Mathura suggests that stupa veneration was not exclusive to Buddhism.
• Inscriptional and later textual evidence indicates that this stupa was known as the Devanirmita Stupa (the stupa made by the gods).
• Jainism's early spread to the far south is evidenced by references in the Mahavamsa to the construction of houses and temples for Nigantha (Jaina) ascetics in Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka, by the 4th century BCE king Pandukabhaya.
• The Maduraikkanchi mentions a magnificent temple of the Nirgranthas (Jainas) in Madurai.
• Tamil–Brahmi inscriptions from Tamil Nadu and Kerala provide clear evidence of the patronage enjoyed by Jaina monks and nuns from wealthy political and social elites during these centuries.

The Patronage of Religious Establishments

The growing prominence and intricate architecture of religious establishments were supported by increasing and consistent sources of patronage. Inscriptions at various sites reveal the names and often the social and political status of the patrons. Expressions of religious devotion were intertwined with concerns for affirming political and social status and legitimacy.

What were people donating?

• In the case of Hindu temples, donations included images and funding for the construction of shrines and related structures such as tanks and halls. For Buddhist establishments, contributions included money for stupas, shrines, monastic residences, miniature stupas, chaityas, and image carvings. Donations also involved monetary investments whose interest could be used for running the establishment, as well as land gifts. Donations for Jaina establishments primarily focused on excavating caves for Jaina ascetics.
• Donative inscriptions occasionally mention various religious sects of the time. There is some overlap in the expression of pious sentiments. For example, Buddhist donative inscriptions at Mathura often convey the idea that the purpose of the gift was the welfare and happiness of all sentient beings, reflecting the notion that merit (punya) can be transferred. A similar sentiment is found in some Jaina donative inscriptions at Mathura, where the dedication of a pillar aims for the happiness and welfare of all creatures. Likewise, a Mathura inscription linked to a shrine dedicated to the naga deity Dadhikarna expresses a similar sentiment.

Patronage of religious establishments by Royal elites:

• Some patronage to religious establishments came from political elites, with significant variation in the social backgrounds of ruling lineages. On one hand, there were Brahmana kings or those claiming Brahmana descent, such as the Shungas, Kanvas, Mitras, Satavahanas, and Ikshvakus. On the other hand, there were foreign rulers like the Indo-Greeks, Scytho-Parthians, Shakas, and Kushanas.
• Despite the differences in social background, there were similarities in the policies of these dynasties regarding religious sects and patronage. The foundations of royal power, the quest for legitimacy, and social alliances were generally pursued and expressed through multiple means rather than a single approach.
• The Kushanas, for instance, are known for elevating the status of the king. Their epithet devaputrahas been interpreted as a claim to divinity. During the Kushana period, there was a tradition of royal portraiture and royal shrines, with significant evidence from the site of Mat near Mathura.
• Archaeological excavations at Mat revealed the outlines of a large rectangular structure with a round sanctum. Several damaged statues were found, including a headless statue of Kanishka. Images of Kushana kings were also discovered at Surkh Kotal in Afghanistan. Near the center of the circular structure was a headless figure seated on a throne with lion-shaped supports, and the inscription on its base referred to the construction of a devakula(temple), garden, tank, well, assembly hall, and gateway during the reign of a Kushana king.
• A later Sanskrit inscription on the pedestal of a broken image, likely representing a Kushana prince, recorded during the reign of King Huvishka, seems to document the repair of this temple. The last line of the inscription mentions provisions made for Brahmanas, who were regular guests at this place.
• The devakulamay have served as a shrine for the worship of deified dead kings or could have been a royal temple dedicated to various deities, housing images of Kushana royalty.
• V. S. Agrawala suggested that the Mat shrine might have been a Shiva temple based on the identification of two life-size fragmentary sculptures found at the site as Shiva and Durga. Whether the Kushanas built monumental temples where deified kings or gods or both were worshipped, this marked a significant innovation in the theory and practice of kingship.

Religious eclecticism:

• Kanishka is recognized as a patron of Buddhism, yet his coins depict various deities from different cultural traditions—Indian, Graeco-Roman, and Iranian. The coins of the Scytho-Parthians and especially the Kushanas are often seen as a reflection of the religious eclecticism and 'tolerance' of these kings. However, they can be better understood as representing royal policy in an era when the north-west had become a melting pot of diverse religious and cultural traditions.
• For newcomers, it was sensible to align themselves with and proclaim allegiance to significant religious traditions or cults of the time. They also patronized Brahmanas and promoted the use of the Sanskrit language. Under the Kshatrapas and early Kushanas, Sanskrit increasingly became the language of inscriptions, and its use gradually spread to private donative records.

Satavahanas:

• The Satavahanas, among various dynasties, proclaimed their performance of shrauta sacrifices like the ashvamedha. They extended patronage to both Brahmanas and Buddhist monks. The earliest surviving land grant, documenting a grant of land with fiscal exemptions, belongs to the Satavahana period, marking the beginning of a long-standing tradition that became increasingly prevalent in subsequent centuries.
• In the case of the Satavahanas (and the Ikshvakus), royal women often made donations to Buddhist establishments, while royal men focused on patronizing Brahmanas and Hindu temples.

Ikshvaku:

• The site of Nagarjunakonda provides a unique architectural representation of the close relationship between the Ikshvaku kings and religious establishments. It features a royal complex with a citadel, royal residences, Buddhist monasteries, Hindu temples, and 22 chhaya stambhas.

Chhaya stambhas:

• These memorial pillars, most of which are carved with scenes from the life of the deceased person, commemorate figures such as the Ikshvaku king Chantamula, set up by 30 women members of his family. Besides rulers and nobles, these pillars also honor dead soldiers, a military commander, an artisan, and religious individuals.
• The inscriptions at Nagarjunakonda record gifts made by Ikshvaku royalty to Hindu temples and Buddhist monks. These kings are also described as performers of shrauta sacrifices.

Patronage of religious establishments by non-royal people
The major part of the finances for religious establishments in various parts of the subcontinent during this period came, however, from non-royal people.

Bharhut inscriptions:

• Study of the Bharhut inscriptions lists a total of 222 inscriptions dating c. 125–75 BCE. These mention monks, nuns, laywomen, and laymen as donors. The donors included only four royals and a profusion of ordinary individuals. Their names indicate the practice of naming people after nakshatras (asterisms), Brahmanical gods, yakshas, bhutas (spirits), and nagas. 
• The donors came from places ranging from Pataliputra in the east to Nashik in the west, indicating that Bharhut attracted pilgrims and patrons not only from central India but from further away as well.

Sanchi inscriptions:

• Over 800 inscriptions were found at Sanchi. They range from the ‘schism edict’ of Ashoka to inscriptions of the 9th century CE. The vast majority are votive inscriptions belonging to the 2nd century BCE–2nd century CE. 
• The Sanchi monastery seems to have been established in Ashoka’s time, but royal patronage did not play an especially important role in its subsequent growth. The inscriptions identify donors on various bases such as name, kinship relations, occupation, native place, and as members of the monastic order or the laity. Female and male donors occur in almost equal proportions. This in fact suggests a much higher level of female patronage than suggested by textual sources. 
• The occupation of donors is specified in a few inscriptions as gahapati, setthi, lekhaka (scribe), vanija (trader), kamika (artisan), avesani (foreman of artisans), dantakarehi (ivory-workers), vadhaki (mason), pavarika (cloak seller), sotika (weaver), and rajuka. Setthis and gahapatis are mentioned less often than the texts would lead us to expect. 
• The fact that a large number of donors were monks and nuns indicates that members of the monastic community continued to have some access to and control over financial resources. Particularly interesting are collective gifts made by kin groups, and more strikingly, by the entire laity (upasakas or upasikas) of a particular place. 
• Entire villages also made gifts. Most of the donors mentioned in the Sanchi inscriptions came from central India, but some came from places in Rajasthan, Maharashtra, and north India as well. In the early centuries CE, there is an appearance of the first inscriptions recording gifts of Buddha or bodhisattva images.

Jaina inscriptions:
Jaina inscriptions from Mathura reveal a significant participation of women donors. They indicate that tirthankara images were gifted by the wives of a merchant, householder, jeweller, banker, and village headman. Many of these gifts were made at the request of Jaina nuns.

Early Tamil–Brahmi inscriptions in Tamil Nadu and Kerala:
They record donations made by men and women of varied social backgrounds for the excavation of caves for Jaina monks and nuns. The donors included members of the Chera and Pandya royal families, but there are also specialized craftspeople and traders, such as salt merchants (uppu vanikam), a toddy merchant (panita vanikam), ironmonger (kolu vanikam), cloth merchant (aruvai vanikam), and gold merchant (pon vanikam).

Early Brahmi inscriptions in Sri Lanka:

• Record donations made by Tamil merchants in favour of Buddhist establishments. Patronage of religious establishments by Yavanas: Inscriptions from various sites interestingly indicate the participation of yavanas in the networks of pious donations. Heliodorus, the yavana worshipper of Vasudeva has been mentioned earlier. 
• Inscriptions at Buddhist sites such as Sanchi and those in the Western Ghats (Nashik, Junnar, Karle) refer to yavanas as donors. Many yavana donors, mostly residents of Dhenukakata, are mentioned at Karle. 
• A 4th century CE inscription from Nagarjunakonda tells of a yavanaraja from Sanjan on the Konkan coast who was invited by an Abhira ruler Vasusena to witness the installation of a Vishnu image.

Philosophical Developments: Astika and Nastika Schools
Early Indian philosophical schools can be classified into astika and nastika. The astika schools accepted the authority of the Vedas and comprised a number of schools that later came to be considered the six classical systems of Hindu philosophy. The nastika schools, such as the Buddhist, Jaina, and Charvaka, which rejected the authority of the Vedas. Schools such as the Ajivikas continued to flourish during this period.

Charvaka School:

• The Charvaka school was also known as Lokayata (‘that which is found among people’). The tenets of the school are supposed to have been contained in a sutra composed by Brihaspati, but no such text has survived. Whatever we know about Charvaka is through references in texts of rival schools. Its followers rejected the authority of the Vedas and the Brahmanas. 
• They questioned the efficacy of sacrifice. They argued, for instance, that if food offered to deceased ancestors could reach them, it should also be possible to transfer food long distance in a similar manner to hungry travellers. Charvaka also rejected the ideas of an eternal soul, rebirth, and the laws of karma and punya (merit). 
• Its materialist doctrine asserted that the body and consciousness were products of combinations of matter. Charvaka accepted only one basis of knowledge—that which is perceived by the senses. Rejecting the distinction between good and bad actions, the followers of Charvaka philosophy urged that the pleasures of life should be enjoyed—at least this is how their rival schools present their ideas. Later texts refer to two Charvaka schools—Dhurtta and Sushikshita. 
• Dhurtta Charvaka: It held that only the four elements—earth, water, air, and fire— existed. They understood the body as composed of a combination of atoms and rejected the idea of a soul. Sushikshita Charvaka: It accepted the idea of a soul that was distinct from the body. However, this soul was not eternal—it was destroyed when the body was destroyed.

Six systems of the astika tradition:

• The idea of the ‘six systems’ of the astika tradition is something that emerged much later, in the medieval period. These schools are often treated as three inter-related pairs— Purva Mimamsa and Uttara Mimamsa (or Vedanta), Nyaya and Vaisheshika, Samkhya and Yoga. 
• The origins of these systems lay in much earlier times. The cryptic sutra style of their early texts paved the way for many different interpretations and commentaries. These philosophical traditions refer to each other, often in order to refute rival claims.

Mimamsa:

• Mimamsa means exegesis, i.e., explanation, and the school of this name was devoted to Vedic exegesis.