Primary Activities Hunting And Gathering Class 12 Geography

Introduction

Economic activities refer to human activities that generate income and can be categorized into four groups: primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary activities. 

Primary activities are those that directly depend on the environment and involve the utilization of the Earth's resources, including land, water, vegetation, building materials, and minerals. 

Examples of primary activities include hunting, gathering, pastoralism, fishing, forestry, agriculture, and mining and quarrying.

Hunting and Gathering

• The oldest economic activity known is gathering and hunting, which can be carried out with minimal capital investment and basic technology.
• Gathering can be practiced in various locations, including high and low latitude zones such as northern Canada, northern Eurasia, southern Chile, the Amazon Basin, tropical Africa, northern Australia, and interior parts of Southeast Asia. 
• In modern times, gatherers may collect valuable plants and sell them in the market after simple processing. However, synthetic products have replaced many of the items traditionally supplied by gatherers in tropical forests, often offering better quality at lower prices.

Areas of Subsistence Gathering

Pastoralism

Animal rearing is a practice that can be undertaken at either a subsistence or commercial level, depending on a range of factors including geography and technological development.

Nomadic Herding

Pastoral nomadism, also known as nomadic herding, is a traditional lifestyle where herders rely on their animals for essential needs such as food, clothing, shelter, tools, and transportation.

Herders travel to various locations in search of pastures and water sources for their livestock.

Regional Preferences:

• Tropical Africa: Cattle are commonly herded.
• Sahara and Asiatic Deserts: Sheep, goats, and camels are predominant.
• Tibet and the Andes: Yak and llamas are herded in mountainous regions.
• Arctic and Sub-Arctic Regions: Reindeer herding is common.

Main Practicing Regions:

• Core Region: Extends from North Africa across the Arabian Peninsula to Mongolia and Central China.
• Tundra Regions: Found in Eurasia.
• South-West Africa and Madagascar: Nomadic herding is also practiced.

Transhumance:

• Definition: Transhumance is the seasonal migration of herders and their livestock between lowland plains in winter and highland pastures in summer.
• Himalayan Regions: Groups such as Gujjars, Bakarwals, Gaddis, and Bhotiyas migrate from plains to mountains in summer and return to plains in winter.
• Tundra Regions: Herders move from south to north during summer and from north to south in winter.

Challenges:

• Decreasing Numbers: The number of pastoral nomads is declining.
• Shrinking Areas: The areas available for pastoral nomadism are shrinking due to the imposition of political boundaries and new settlement plans by various countries

Areas of Nomadic Herding

Commercial Livestock Rearing

• Commercial livestock production is carried out on permanent ranches that cover vast areas and are subdivided into fenced parcels to regulate grazing. When one parcel's grass is depleted, animals are moved to another parcel.
• Sheep, cattle, goats, and horses are among the essential animals reared on these ranches. The products obtained from these animals, such as meat, wool, hides, and skins, are scientifically processed and packaged for export to various global markets. The rearing of livestock on these ranches is done on a scientific basis.
• Commercial livestock production is practised in several countries, including New Zealand, Australia, Argentina, Uruguay, and the United States of America.

Agriculture

Based on methods of farming, different types of crops are grown and livestock raised.

Subsistence Agriculture

• Subsistence agriculture refers to a type of farming where the produced crops and products are primarily used by the farming community for their own consumption, with little or no surplus being sold to other markets. 
• This type of agriculture can be classified into two main categories: primitive subsistence agriculture and intensive subsistence agriculture.

Primitive Subsistence Agriculture

• The practice of primitive subsistence agriculture, also known as shifting cultivation, is commonly observed among tribes residing in tropical regions, such as Africa, South and Central America, and Southeast Asia. 
• This farming method involves clearing the vegetation through burning, known as slash and burn agriculture, which contributes to the soil's fertility through the addition of ashes. 
• Shifting cultivation is referred to by different names in various regions, including Jhuming in Northeastern states of India, Milpa in Central America and Mexico, and Ladang in Indonesia and Malaysia. However, this farming technique poses a significant challenge as the fertility of the soil decreases with each cycle of cultivation.

Areas of Primitive Subsistence Agriculture

Intensive Subsistence Farming

• Intensive subsistence agriculture is predominantly practiced in densely populated areas of monsoon Asia and can be classified into two types. 

• The first type, dominated by wet paddy cultivation, involves the cultivation of rice and is characterised by small land holdings due to the high population density. Manual labour is primarily used for agricultural operations, and machinery usage is minimal. Although the yield per unit area is high, per-labour productivity remains low. 
• The second type of intensive subsistence agriculture, dominated by crops other than paddy, involves the cultivation of wheat, soybean, barley, and sorghum in regions like Northern China, Manchuria, North Korea, North Japan, and the western parts of the Indo-Gangetic plains in India, where millets are grown in the dry areas of western and southern India.

Areas of Intensive Subsistence Farming

Plantation Agriculture

• Plantation agriculture was introduced by the Europeans in their colonies located in tropical regions and involves the cultivation of significant crops such as tea, coffee, cocoa, rubber, cotton, oil palm, sugarcane, bananas, and pineapples.
• Plantation agriculture is characterized by large estates or plantations that require a significant capital investment, managerial and technical support, scientific methods of cultivation, single crop specialization, the use of cheap labor, and an efficient transportation system to link the estates to the factories and markets for exporting the products.
• Some of the most important plantation crops are cocoa and coffee in West Africa established by the French, tea gardens in India and Sri Lanka set up by the British, rubber plantations in Malaysia, sugarcane and banana plantations in West Indies, coconut and sugarcane plantations in the Philippines, and sugarcane plantations in Indonesia. In Brazil, some coffee fazendas (large plantations) are also present.
• Currently, ownership of most plantations has shifted to the government or the nationals of the countries concerned.

Extensive Commercial Grain Cultivation

• Commercial grain cultivation is predominantly practiced in the interior regions of semi-arid lands in the mid-latitudes, with wheat being the primary crop.
• Other crops such as corn, barley, oats, and rye are also grown in these areas. The farms in this region are significantly larger, which enables the entire cultivation process, from ploughing to harvesting, to be mechanized. The yield per acre is generally low, but the yield per person is high.
• This type of cultivation is observed in various regions worldwide, including the Eurasian steppes, the Canadian and American Prairies, the Pampas of Argentina, the Velds of South Africa, the Australian Downs, and the Canterbury Plains of New Zealand.

Areas of Extensive Commercial Grain Farming

Mixed Farming

• This type of agriculture is commonly observed in the highly developed regions of the world such as Northwestern Europe, Eastern North America, parts of Eurasia, and the temperate latitudes of the Southern continents. 
• The crops typically associated with this type of farming include wheat, barley, oats, rye, maize, fodder, and root crops. 
• Fodder crops are of significant importance in mixed farming. The size of mixed farms is moderate, and crop rotation and intercropping techniques are commonly employed to maintain soil fertility. 
• The distinctive features of mixed farming include high capital expenditure on farm machinery and buildings, extensive use of chemical fertilizers and green manures, and the expertise and skill of the farmers.

Areas of Mixed Farming

Dairy Farming

• Dairy farming is considered the most advanced and efficient method of rearing milch animals. However, it requires significant capital investment, as it involves the construction of animal sheds, storage facilities for fodder, feeding and milking machines. 
• The breeding, health care, and veterinary services for cattle are also given special emphasis. Dairy farming is labor-intensive, as it involves rigorous care in feeding and milking the animals. 
• Commercial dairy farming is prevalent in three main regions, namely North Western Europe, Canada, and a belt that includes South Eastern Australia, New Zealand, and Tasmania.

Areas of Dairy Farming

Mediterranean Agriculture

• Mediterranean agriculture is a type of farming practiced in the countries located around the Mediterranean Sea in Europe and North Africa, as well as in some other regions such as southern California, central Chile, south-western parts of South Africa and south and south-western parts of Australia.
• The cultivation of grapes or viticulture is a significant aspect of agriculture in the Mediterranean region. Inferior grapes are used for making raisins and currants, while the superior quality ones are used for producing wines. Besides grapes, the region also produces olives and figs.

Market Gardening and Horticulture

Definition: Focuses on high-value crops like vegetables, fruits, and flowers, primarily for urban markets.

Characteristics:

• Location: Farms are small and strategically located near urban centers with good transportation links.
• Intensity: Both labor and capital intensive, employing techniques like irrigation, HYV seeds, fertilizers, and insecticides.
• Infrastructure: Greenhouses and artificial heating used in colder regions to extend growing seasons.

1) Truck Farming

• Truck farming is a type of farming where farmers specialize in growing vegetables only. These farms are located at a distance from the market which can be covered by a truck overnight, hence the name truck farming.

2) Factory Farming

• Intensive livestock farming is practiced in the industrial regions of Western Europe and North America, where livestock, poultry, and cattle are raised in stalls and pens, and fed manufactured feedstuff while being closely monitored for diseases. 
• This type of farming requires significant capital investment.

Co-operative Farming

• A group of farmers voluntarily combine their resources to achieve more efficient and profitable farming in a system known as a co-operative.
• This approach facilitates the processing of inputs, sale of products, and production of quality goods at a reduced cost.
• The co-operative movement has been highly successful in various Western European countries such as Denmark, the Netherlands, Belgium, Sweden, Italy, and more.

Collective Farming

• This form of agriculture is based on the principles of social ownership of the means of production and collective labor. The Kolkhoz model was introduced in the former USSR.
• Under this system, farmers come together and pool their resources, including land, livestock, and labor, and are allowed to retain a small portion for their own use.

Mining

Mining refers to the process of extracting minerals from the earth's surface or below the surface. The practice of mining gained prominence during the industrial revolution and its significance has only grown since then.

Factors Affecting Mining Activity

The success of mining activities is influenced by two major factors:

• Physical factors, which include the size, quality, and manner of occurrence of mineral deposits.
• Economic factors, which comprise the demand for the mineral, technological advancements, capital investment to build infrastructure, and expenses related to labor and transportation.

Methods of Mining

Mining can be classified into two types depending on the mode of occurrence and the nature of ore:

• Surface Mining: This type of mining is the easiest and cheapest way to extract minerals located close to the earth's surface. Overhead costs are low.
• Underground Mining: It is used when the mineral deposit is located deep below the surface. It requires lifts, drills, haulage vehicles, and ventilation systems for safety and efficient movement of people and materials. This method is risky as poisonous gases, fires, and floods may occur.

Developed economies are moving away from mining, processing, and refining stages of production due to higher labor costs. On the other hand, developing countries with a large labor force and striving for a higher standard of living are becoming more important in the mining industry.

Conclusion

Economic activities have evolved from ancient times, with primary activities like hunting, gathering, and pastoralism maintaining our connection to nature. These activities provide essential resources and sustain our economic systems. Understanding them helps us appreciate how humans interact with their environment and each other, shaping our modern world.