Protest, Agitation, Social movements, Collective action, Revolution | Sociology Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

An element of dissatisfaction with the current system exists in every society, which may stem from factors such as poverty, social discrimination, exploitation, or lack of privilege. This dissatisfaction can lead individuals to express their desire for change by questioning established societal practices and raising their voices against the prevailing order. Social movements arise in response to these situations, developing through a sequence of dissent, protest and agitation, and ultimately forming a social movement. In some cases, these stages may occur simultaneously.

• Dissent refers to ideas and actions that deviate from the prevalent norms and opinions within a society at a given time. Disagreements and differences in opinion on specific issues form the basis of dissent, which can be seen as the initial stage of a movement for change. For instance, the struggle against untouchability in India began when those affected by the practice voiced their dissent.
• Protest and agitation are typically specific in nature and arise when dissent is openly expressed. As dissenting opinions become more concrete, they can lead to situations of protest and agitation, which must be supported by dissent regarding the existing institutional arrangements in society in order to have a meaningful impact.
• The term "social movements" was first introduced in 1850 by German sociologist Lorenz von Stein in his book "History of the French Social Movement from 1789 to the Present." A social movement is defined as a sustained collective effort that focuses on a particular aspect of social change. According to M.S.A. Rao, a social movement involves sustained collective mobilization through either informal or formal organization, with the primary goal of bringing about change in the existing system.

Key Processes Lie Behind the History of Social Movements

Several crucial processes underlie the history of social movements. 

• The emergence of URBANIZATION led to the formation of larger communities, enabling individuals with common objectives to connect, assemble, and strategize. This enhanced social interaction among numerous individuals, and it was in these urban centers that the earliest social movements emerged.
• Similarly, the rise of INDUSTRIALIZATION, which brought together vast numbers of workers in specific regions, explains why many of these early social movements focused on issues such as economic well-being, which was vital to the working class.
• The UNIVERSALIZATION of EDUCATION also played a significant role in the development of social movements. Numerous movements were initiated at universities, where mass education brought together diverse groups of individuals.
• The SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION also contributed to the growth of social movements. As communication technologies advanced, the creation and activities of social movements became more accessible – from the circulation of printed pamphlets in the 18th-century coffeehouses to the use of newspapers and the internet, all of these tools became crucial factors in the expansion of social movements.
• Finally, the spread of DEMOCRATIZATION and political rights, such as freedom of speech, greatly facilitated the formation and functioning of social movements. From the perspective of the UPSC exam, it is essential to understand how these key processes – urbanization, industrialization, universalization of education, scientific revolution, and democratization – have shaped and influenced the growth and evolution of social movements throughout history.

The Nature of Social Movements

• The nature of social movements can be understood through various definitions and characteristics that differentiate them from other forms of collective action. According to Turner & Kilhan, a social movement is a "collectivity that acts with some continuity to promote or resist change in the society or group of which it is a part." Toch emphasizes that a social movement is an effort by a large number of people to collectively solve a problem they believe they share in common.
• While social movements involve collective action by people, it is important to note that not all forms of collective action can be considered social movements, even if they aim to change existing social values. A characteristic of social movements is that they are sustained and not sporadic in nature.
• Social movements differ from crowds in that they are long-term collectivities, rather than quickly formed spontaneous groupings. They also differ from other movements such as the cooperative movement or trade union movement, which are institutionalized and function under a set of rules with restricted membership and a fixed structure and hierarchy.

In contrast, social movements do not exhibit such features; they are characterized by sustained action and spontaneity operating simultaneously, distinguishing them from other movements. Initially, social movements do not follow a fixed pattern of hierarchy, allowing them to innovate new organizational features. Institutionalization, on the other hand, would prevent innovation due to its fixed structures.

Types of Social Movements

1. REFORM MOVEMENTS: Reform movements are collective efforts aimed at bringing about specific changes within a society without drastically altering its overall structure. These movements accept the fundamental social order and focus on achieving their objectives through established institutions like the government, media, educational institutions, and religious organizations. Reform movements are more likely to emerge in democratic societies where criticism and dissent are tolerated. These movements often arise on behalf of oppressed or marginalized groups, seeking to address their grievances and improve their conditions.
2. REVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENTS: Revolutionary movements seek to overthrow the existing social, political, and economic systems and replace them with entirely new ones. These movements challenge the prevailing norms, values, and power structures, proposing alternative social orders. Revolutionary movements are more radical in their approach, aiming to bring about comprehensive transformations in society.
3. RESISTANCE OR REACTIONARY MOVEMENTS: Resistance or reactionary movements emerge among individuals who are discontented with specific aspects of societal change. These movements strive to restore or reinstate traditional values, practices, and systems that they believe have been disrupted or threatened by modernization, globalization, or other external forces. Resistance movements often reflect a sense of nostalgia for the past and a desire to preserve cultural or social distinctiveness.
4. MIGRATORY MOVEMENTS: Migratory movements involve the large-scale movement of people from one geographical area to another, driven by dissatisfaction with their present conditions or a shared aspiration for a better future elsewhere. These movements can be voluntary or forced, and they may result from factors such as economic hardship, political persecution, environmental disasters, or the search for better opportunities and improved living conditions.

Functions of Social Movements

Social movements play a crucial role in society, and according to Touraine, they serve three key functions:

• Facilitating Individual Participation: Social movements act as a bridge between individuals and the larger society, allowing people to be actively involved in social change. They provide a platform for individuals to express their opinions, contribute their ideas, and engage in the process of societal transformation.
• Exerting Influence: Social movements encourage the creation of organized groups that work persistently towards the implementation of their objectives and policies. They act as a driving force, pushing for change and urging authorities to respond to the demands and concerns of the people.
• Fostering Collective Consciousness: Social movements contribute to the generation and dissemination of ideas throughout society, leading to the emergence and growth of collective consciousness. By raising awareness and promoting dialogue on critical issues, they help shape public opinion and facilitate social change.

Theoretical Approaches to the Origins of Social Movements:

• Deprivation Theory: This theory posits that social movements are rooted in the experiences of people who feel deprived of certain goods or resources. It suggests that individuals lacking in certain aspects are more likely to organize a social movement to improve or defend their conditions. However, this theory faces two main challenges: firstly, it does not explain why certain groups form social movements while others facing deprivation do not; and secondly, it relies on circular reasoning, as the only evidence for deprivation is often the existence of the social movement itself.
• Marxist Theory: Based on the ideas of Karl Marx, this theory focuses on movements driven by conflicts between the working class and their capitalist employers. It has evolved over time to encompass issues such as race, gender, and the environment in addition to its core focus on political and economic conditions. While class-based movements have been more prominent in Europe, Marxist theory has also influenced social movements in the United States.
• Mass Society Theory: This theory argues that social movements consist of individuals in large societies who feel insignificant or socially disconnected. Such movements provide a sense of empowerment and belonging to their members. However, empirical support for this theory is limited, as studies have shown that social detachment is not necessarily a precursor to joining a social movement.
• Social Strain Theory (Value-Added Theory): This approach identifies six factors that promote social movement emergence: structural conduciveness, structural strain, growth and spread of a solution, precipitating factors, lack of social control, and mobilization. It emphasizes the role of societal conditions, catalyst events, and organizational efforts in the development of social movements.
• Resource Mobilization Theory: This theory highlights the importance of resources in the formation and success of social movements. Resources include knowledge, money, media, labor, solidarity, legitimacy, and support from power elites. The theory suggests that social movements arise when individuals with grievances can mobilize sufficient resources to take action. This focus on resources helps explain why some discontented individuals can organize while others cannot.

Sources of Problems in Social Movement

• The primary challenges faced by emerging social movements include raising awareness about their existence and overcoming the issue of people not actively participating due to the 'free rider problem'. This problem arises when individuals assume that others will contribute to the cause, and they can simply enjoy the benefits without putting in any effort.
• Many social movements are centered around a charismatic leader, who possesses the ability to attract and influence people. Recruitment for such movements typically occurs in two phases. The first phase attracts individuals who are genuinely interested in the primary goal and ideals of the movement. The second phase comprises individuals who join the movement due to its success and popularity, as it may enhance their personal image or résumé. However, these individuals are likely to be the first to leave when the movement faces any setbacks or failures.
• External factors, such as opposition from the government or competing movements, can also contribute to a social crisis within the movement. Nevertheless, several social movements have managed to survive such crises, often being revived by dedicated activists even after a prolonged period of decline.

Role of Leadership and Ideology in Social Movements

• The role of leadership and ideology in social movements is crucial, as leaders help clarify the issues and shape the direction of the movement. They provide guidance and prevent the movement from becoming a disorganized and chaotic group of individuals. 
• Leadership in social movements ensures that the movement is driven by the collective views and aspirations of the people involved. Leaders are responsible for articulating these views and presenting them in an organized manner, which makes the movement more coherent and effective. This not only helps in garnering support from a larger audience but also facilitates better communication and coordination among the participants.
• The ideology of a social movement plays a significant role in defining its objectives, methods, and desired outcomes. A well-defined ideology helps the movement to stay focused on its goals and principles, and it serves as a guiding force for the participants. It also helps in attracting like-minded individuals and organizations, thereby increasing the strength and impact of the movement.
• The leadership and ideology of a social movement are interlinked, as the leaders must embody and promote the ideology while also being responsive to the needs and expectations of the participants. Effective leadership ensures that the ideology remains relevant and in line with the evolving social, political, and economic context.

Ideology is a crucial factor that influences individuals to follow a leader, as it embodies the ideas and principles that the leader presents to the people. The importance of ideology can be understood through the following aspects:

• Sustaining the movement: Ideology plays a vital role in maintaining the momentum and unity of a social or political movement. It provides a common ground for individuals to come together and work towards a shared objective.
• Analyzing situations: Ideology helps individuals in comprehending and interpreting various situations and circumstances. This understanding enables them to make informed decisions and take appropriate actions.
• Legitimizing actions: Ideology serves as a basis to validate and endorse the actions pursued by individuals or groups. It offers a moral and ethical framework that justifies their conduct and decisions.
• Understanding and justifying implications: Ideology assists individuals in recognizing the consequences of their actions and decisions. It allows them to rationalize and explain the implications of their actions in the context of their belief systems.
• Guiding practical activities: Ideology outlines the objectives, methods, and forms of practical activities undertaken by social groups and individuals. It acts as a roadmap that directs their actions and decisions towards the fulfillment of their goals.
• Justifying social, political, and moral ideals: Ideology provides a foundation for various social, political, and moral ideals. It supports and defends the principles and values that individuals or groups adhere to.
• Distinguishing social movements from mere instances: Ideology sets apart a social movement from random events or occurrences. It gives a distinct identity and purpose to the movement, making it more than just a series of isolated incidents.
• Operating within an ideological framework: Leaders function within the boundaries of a specific ideological framework. This framework shapes their actions, decisions, and policies, ensuring that they align with the underlying principles and values.

Life Cycle of Social Movements

The life cycle of social movements can be divided into five distinct stages, which are crucial for understanding the development and impact of these movements in society.

1. The first stage involves the emergence of social unrest due to existing issues and challenges within society. In this stage, collective tension builds up as people become increasingly aware of the problems they are facing and their shared concerns.
2. The second stage is characterized by a rising sense of collective excitement, as people begin to identify specific social conditions as the root cause of their problems. This leads to the formation of a shared ideology, which serves as the foundation for the movement. As the movement gains momentum, agitation increases, leading to a heightened sense of urgency and a push for action.
3. The third stage involves the formalization of the movement, as organizational structures and hierarchies are established. This includes the division of labor among leaders and followers, fundraising efforts, and the development of a clear ideology. Additionally, strategies and tactics for protests and actions are devised, and a moral justification for the movement's actions is established.
4. The fourth stage is marked by the institutionalization of the movement, as it becomes more established and accepted within society. Bureaucrats replace agitators, offices and buildings are set up, and the movement's goals become more widely recognized. This stage can last for an indefinite period, depending on the success and impact of the movement.
5. The fifth and final stage involves the dissolution of the movement, which occurs when the movement either achieves its objectives or fails to maintain momentum and support. Some movements may dissolve early in their life cycle, while others may continue to exist even after their goals have been achieved.

Revolution

A revolution can be defined as a significant shift in political power or organizational structures, occurring within a relatively short period, as a result of the population's uprising against the existing authorities. This transformative event leads to substantial reforms or changes in the society. According to John Dunn, for a revolution to be successful, the new leadership must be more capable of governing the society than the previous rulers and must achieve at least some of its objectives. If the movement only gains formal power but fails to govern effectively, the society cannot be considered to have experienced a revolution; instead, it is likely to be in chaos or on the verge of disintegration.

• Revolutionary movements typically involve the threat or use of violence by participants, as political changes are brought about despite resistance from the pre-existing authorities, who are unwilling to relinquish power without coercion. Consequently, a revolution can be characterized as the violent seizure of political power by the leaders of a mass movement, followed by the implementation of significant social reforms.
• Historically, revolutions have been crucial in shaping modern societies, with the American and French revolutions of 1776 and 1789, respectively, being the most prominent examples of the eighteenth century. These transformative events not only affected the United States and France but also had a broader impact on Western societies. Throughout the twentieth century, numerous revolutions took place in developing countries such as Russia, China, Mexico, Turkey, Egypt, Vietnam, and Cuba, significantly altering the global political landscape.

Theories Of Revolution

Karl Marx's Theory:
Marx's perspective on revolution is rooted in his understanding of human history. He believed that societal development is marked by periodic class conflicts, which, when they become acute, often result in revolutionary change. These class struggles arise from the contradictions and unresolved tensions within societies.

• The primary source of contradiction can be traced back to economic changes or shifts in the forces of production. In the beginning, society was stable, with a balance between the economic structure, social relationships, and the political system (Primitive Capitalist Stage). Marx applied this model to the past development of feudalism and the probable future evolution of industrial capitalism.
• Feudal societies in Europe were based on peasant production, with serfs ruled by a class of landed aristocrats and gentry. However, the emergence of industrial capitalism introduced new contradictions, which, according to Marx, would eventually lead to a series of revolutions driven by communist ideals. By communism, Marx meant the ownership of industry by society as a whole, rather than by individuals.
• Industrial capitalism, which is based on the private pursuit of profit and competition between firms, creates a divide between a wealthy minority who control industrial resources and a poor majority of wage workers. This leads to increasing conflict between workers and capitalists. Labor movements and political parties representing the working population eventually challenge the capitalist class's rule and overthrow the existing political system.

James Davies' Theory:
Criticizing Marx, sociologist James Davies argued that there have been many historical periods when people lived in extreme poverty but did not protest. Constant poverty or deprivation does not turn people into revolutionaries; instead, they typically endure such conditions with resignation or silent despair.

• Davies believed that social protest, and ultimately revolution, is more likely to occur when there is an improvement in people's living conditions. Once living standards begin to rise, people's expectations also increase. If the improvement in actual conditions slows down, the propensity to revolt arises from the frustration of rising expectations.
• Davies' theory suggests that it is not absolute deprivation that leads to protest but relative deprivation – the discrepancy between people's actual lives and what they believe could realistically be achieved. This theory is helpful in understanding the relationship between revolution and modern social and economic development. Ideas of progress and expectations of economic growth can induce rising expectations, which, if frustrated, can spark protest.

Charles Tilly's Theory:
In "From Mobilization to Revolution," Charles Tilly analyzed the process of revolutionary change in the context of broader forms of protest and violence. He identified four main components of collective action, which can lead to revolution:

• The organization of the involved groups: Protest movements can have various organizational structures, ranging from spontaneous crowds to highly disciplined revolutionary groups.
• Mobilization: This refers to the ways in which a group acquires sufficient resources to make collective action possible, including material goods, political support, and weaponry.
• Common interests: The goals that unite those engaging in collective action, as well as the perceived gains and losses that their actions might bring.
• Opportunity: Chance events may offer opportunities to advance revolutionary aims. Many forms of collective action, including revolution, are heavily influenced by incidental events.

Political Socialization

Political socialization can be defined as the process through which individuals and communities acquire political culture and values in a political system. This is achieved by gaining information about political symbols, institutions, and procedures, and internalizing the value system and ideology that supports the system. It is an essential function of the political system and is also part of the broader socialization process that begins in later life.
The two crucial components of political socialization are 

1. the imparting of general values and norms related to political behavior and matters, and 
2. the introduction of individuals or groups to a specific political party, where they learn its ideology and action programs. The mass media also plays a significant role in educating the public and shaping their views, enabling them to make informed decisions about political affairs, especially during election periods.

Political Modernization

Political modernization, on the other hand, refers to the transformation of political culture in response to changes in the social and physical environment. It encompasses changes in all areas of human thought and activity. According to Huntington, political modernization is a multifaceted process, while Benjamin Schwartz views it as the systematic, sustained, and powerful application of human energies to control mankind's social and physical environment. Claude Welch describes political modernization as a process based on the rational utilization of resources and aimed at the establishment of a modern society.
The modernization of the political system leads to the emergence of several critical problems and challenges faced by the political system, which are rooted in the changing sources of legitimation of authority. 

Conclusion

Social movements and revolutions play a crucial role in shaping societies and driving change. Through the processes of dissent, protest, and agitation, social movements arise from dissatisfaction with existing systems and work towards bringing about desired changes. The history of social movements is deeply intertwined with key processes such as urbanization, industrialization, education, scientific revolution, and democratization. Various theories have been proposed to explain the origins and nature of social movements and revolutions, highlighting the importance of factors such as deprivation, class struggle, rising expectations, and political socialization. The role of leadership and ideology is also significant in driving and sustaining these movements, as they guide the actions and objectives of the participants. As societies continue to evolve, social movements and revolutions will remain important agents of change, shaping the future of human civilization.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) of Protest, Agitation, Social movements, Collective action, Revolution

What is the main difference between a social movement and a revolution?

A social movement is a sustained collective effort that focuses on a specific aspect of social change, often involving protests and demonstrations. A revolution, on the other hand, is a significant and rapid shift in political power or organizational structures, often involving violence and the overthrow of the existing authorities.

What are the four main types of social movements?

The four main types of social movements are reform movements, revolutionary movements, resistance or reactionary movements, and migratory movements.

What is the role of leadership and ideology in social movements?

Leadership and ideology are crucial in social movements as they help clarify the issues, shape the direction of the movement, and maintain momentum and unity. Leaders are responsible for articulating the views and aspirations of the participants and presenting them in an organized manner. Ideology defines the movement's objectives, methods, and desired outcomes, providing a guiding force for the participants.

What are the main theories of revolution?

Three main theories of revolution are Karl Marx's Theory, which focuses on class conflicts and contradictions within society; James Davies' Theory, which emphasizes relative deprivation and the frustration of rising expectations; and Charles Tilly's Theory, which analyzes the process of revolutionary change in the context of broader forms of protest and violence.

How do political socialization and political modernization differ?

Political socialization is the process through which individuals and communities acquire political culture and values in a political system, while political modernization refers to the transformation of political culture in response to changes in the social and physical environment. Political socialization is an ongoing learning process, whereas political modernization involves systemic changes in response to evolving social conditions.