Quantitative and Qualitative Methods | Sociology Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Introduction

• The method is a technique used for gaining knowledge based on experimental observations and logical reasoning. It is used to collect data in different fields.
• There are multiple ways to conduct research in any field. The collection of data and its analysis are the two major objectives of any approach.
• In sociology also, the different methods make use of several techniques of data collection that can be implemented as per the will of the sociologist or experimenter. Also, sociologist starts their analysis based on their perspective on different aspects.
• For instance, positivists are more sure of statistical techniques, causal analysis, correlations, and field experiments. But, the viewpoints of non-positivists are different from theirs as they believe in using observational approaches, case studies, experiments, etc.
• But in the contemporary world, sociologists are free to make use of any of the methods being it qualitative or quantitative for their research such as post-modernists focusing more on purpose despite any other specified method. There are  two different methods for sociological research and experimentation.

Quantitative methods

Quantitative  method is a research  method that collects numerical data. It consist of counts or numbers, percentages, statistics, rates that prove the absence or existence of problems, etc.

Advantages of quantitative methods 

•  Quantitative research allows the collection of data from larger samples, enabling broader studies and generalization to larger populations.
•  It helps achieve reliable, valid, accurate, and objective results.
• The method allows for replication and the design of similar studies for consistent findings.
• It enables the researcher to control the environment during data collection, reducing error variance.
•  Structured, close-ended questions reduce the influence of personal biases on responses.

Disadvantages of quantitative methods

• Quantitative research lacks detailed contextual information.
•  It is restricted to statistical analysis, limiting the scope for discovery and deeper insights.
•  Closed-ended questions may result in limited or incomplete information.
•  It doesn't involve in-depth interviews or individual perceptions, providing less insight into the complexities of real-world situations.

Some of the quantitative methods used by researchers include:

• Questionnaires
• Surveys
• Observational checklists
• Statistical data
• Performance tests

Apart from these, some of the quantitative methods are detailed as follows:

Field experiments

• When sociologists carry their research out of laboratories, the method utilized can be called a field experiment. These methods are conducted in fields and outer areas. This method involves intervening in the social world. This method is applicable in a way that theories can be verified by separating specific variables.
• For instance, Brown and Gay (1985) conducted field experiments in which they made false requests for jobs by letter and telephone, identifying them as being from different ethnic groups. Even though the field experiment is advantageous over the experiments conducted in unnatural settings, it has several limitations associated with it.
• It is impossible to control variables as closely as it is in the laboratory.
• The results of field experiments can vary depending on the place where the experiment is conducted.

Statistical data

• The statistical method is another widely used quantitative research method for conducting research. It makes use of statistical data collected for particular research and examines it respectively. This method is also considered by positivists. They believe that it is better to categorize the social world in an objective manner using statistical data. Using this, the set of observable social facts can be counted to produce statistics for a particular event.
• For instance, Durkheim elaborates his theory on social facts like the suicide rate of different religions collected data. Qualitative And Quantitative Methods-I

Comparative method

• The comparative method uses a logical, scientific approach. Many famous sociologists like Marx, Durkheim, and weber have used the comparative method to conduct their research.
• The comparative method can be used to establish correlations or test hypotheses among different societies, and groups at the same or different points in time.

Qualitative methods of research

• The qualitative method is the investigation and explanation of observations to discover fundamental meaning and patterns. Hence, the qualitative methods help in finding out the patterns, meanings, symbols, goals, etc. 
• Weber with his interpretive approach used Verstehen and Ideal Types for his investigation. However, Deductivism is often used as the basic qualitative approach. 

Advantages of qualitative method

• Qualitative methods provide a complete picture for any investigation.
• These methods carry out an end-to-end analysis with no omission of data.
• They widen the range of sociology.
• The techniques of data collection are comparatively easy.

Limitations of qualitative method

• This method requires a trained investigator to carry out an analysis.
• Expertise in various empirical skills is mandatory.
• It is difficult to check the reliability and validity of an experiment done using the qualitative method.
• The methods become even more complex if the sample is extensively large, as it becomes hard to manage and study a large sample for the researcher.

 Some of the widely used qualitative methods in sociological research are detailed as follows

Case Studies

• A case study is a concentrated study of a particular individual or specific perspective.
• For instance, Piaget implemented the method of case studies in his research. He did case studies of children to study their developmental phases in them.
• Freud as the basis for the theory of psychoanalysis considered case studies of some individuals in his investigation.
• However, a case study may be conducted in multiple ways. One can just go with a case study or with a combination of qualitative methods like unstructured interviewing, direct observation, etc. 

Participant Observation

• Participant observation is considered to be one of the most demanding and common qualitative methods used for empirical research.
• The main requirement of this method is the consideration of a researcher himself as a participant in the environment (which is to be studied) or the circumstance being observed.
• The literature evidence on this method explains well how an investigator can enter the context, the role of the investigator as a participant, the collection of data, and the required information and analysis of data.

Direct Observation

• This method differs from the participant observation on various grounds.
• In this method, the investigator need not become a participant in the experimental context. But the direct observer should not be noticed for empirical characters to avoid any biasedness in the observation.
• Direct observation advocates a more separate viewpoint. In this method, the researcher instead of taking part just watch out for the context or situation.
• This method can use technology as a part of the study. For instance, an investigator may videotape or record the process being present in the environment needed to be studied.
• Direct observation is more focused than participant observation as in this method a researcher need not act as a participant or get completely immersed in the context. Thus are less chance of bias. 

Unstructured Interviewing

• This method involves direct contact between the scientist and a respondent/ group.
• There is no formal structure of questions that are to be asked. Instead, some initial guiding questions or concepts are considered for starting an interview.
• An interview can take the respondent in any direction of questions of his interest and can get a broader knowledge of a particular topic.
• It is nearly impossible to analyze unstructured interview data as every interview is unique with no pre-planned set of questions in an interview.