Religion in Modern Society: Secularization | Sociology Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Introduction - Religion in Modern Society: Secularization

Empty Churches are a common sight across Europe

In the early 1950s, J.M. Mogey's study, Family and Neighbourhood, conducted in Oxford, discovered a general indifference towards religion and churchgoing. The majority of people considered the church as a place for the young and the old, but not for themselves. This finding suggests a decline in the influence of religion in society. Many sociologists believe that Western societies are experiencing a process of secularization, which means the influence of religion in all aspects of social life is gradually decreasing. Bryan Wilson, a proponent of this view, defines secularization as "the process whereby religious thinking, practice and institutions lose social significance." However, the concept of secularization has been used in various ways in sociology, making it difficult to agree on a single definition. 

• Larry Shiner, after reviewing studies on secularization, highlights that the primary issue is the lack of consensus on what secularization is and how to measure it. Any research on secularization must begin with defining religion, which proves to be problematic due to the absence of a universally accepted definition. Different interpretations of religion will result in differing perspectives on secularization. Glock and Stark argue that one's perception of secularization is influenced by their understanding of what religion means.
• For instance, one researcher might view the essential characteristic of religion as worship in a religious institution, and therefore see a decline in church attendance as evidence of secularization. Another might emphasize religious belief, which they might regard as independent of attending a religious institution. To help clarify the issue, studies of secularization can be classified according to the various ways the process has been conceptualized and measured.

Institutional Religion - Participation

Institutional religion and its participation have been considered a key element in religious behavior by some researchers. They measure the significance of religion in society through factors such as church attendance and church-performed marriages. Based on these measures, they argue that secularization is occurring in most Western societies.

• Statistics on church attendance in England and Wales show a steady decline over the past century. In 1851, about 40% of the adult population attended church each week, which decreased to 35% by the turn of the century, 20% by 1950, and only 10-12% by 1970. There has also been a decline in the number of baptisms, confirmations, church marriages, and Sunday school attendances. For instance, in 1929, 56% of all marriages in England and Wales were conducted in the Church of England, compared to just 37% in 1973. During these years, the percentage of registry office marriages increased from 25.7% to 47%.
• The decline in church-related religious activities has been accompanied by a decrease in the number of clergy. Bryan Wilson provides figures showing that in 1861, there was one Anglican clergyman for every 960 people in England and Wales, whereas a century later, there was less than one for every 4,000 people. This decline in institutional religion applies not only to the Church of England but to all significant denominations and is also observed in most West European countries.
• Wilson argues that the decline in organized religious participation indicates a loss of direct influence of the Churches on people's ideas and activities. Researchers who view this decline in institutional religion as an indication of a broader decline of religion in society often base their views on the traditional idea that religious people go to church.
• Critics like Peter Glasner argue that these studies often equate religion with church-oriented religion and rely on conventional definitions of religious institutions. The decline in participation in institutional religion can be interpreted in various ways. From a phenomenological perspective, it is essential to understand the meanings associated with participation.
• David Martin suggests that in Victorian times, church attendance was motivated more by nonreligious factors such as middle-class respectability. As church attendance is no longer an indication of respectability for many middle-class individuals, their absence from church may not necessarily indicate a change in religious beliefs.
• National opinion polls over the past twenty years reveal that a high proportion of those who identify themselves as Christians do not see regular church attendance as a necessary part of their faith. Robert N. Bellah contends that the decline in institutional religion does not necessarily signify a decline in religious belief and commitment.
• Bellah suggests that religion today may simply be expressed differently, with a shift from collective worship to privatized worship and from clerical to individual interpretation of doctrine. He posits that the assumption in most major Protestant denominations is that church members can be considered responsible for themselves.

Institutional Religion- Disengagement and Differentiation

Institutional religion has undergone a significant transformation in contemporary Western society compared to its role in Medieval Europe. During the Middle Ages, the church was closely intertwined with every aspect of social life, including politics, education, social welfare, and the arts. However, in modern times, the church has experienced a disengagement from these sectors, leading to debates among researchers about the implications of this shift.

• Some researchers argue that the decline in church attendance and its disengagement from various aspects of society signify the secularization of society. They point to the diminishing influence, power, and prestige of ecclesiastical institutions as evidence for this perspective. For instance, the Church of England today primarily serves as a provider of traditional rituals for significant life events like birth, marriage, and death. Critics argue that this disengagement from broader societal concerns is indicative of secularization.
• On the other hand, some scholars contend that this disengagement does not necessarily equate to secularization. Talcott Parsons, for example, believes that the church's loss of specific functions can be attributed to the process of structural differentiation, wherein different parts of the social system become specialized and perform fewer functions. According to this view, the church's focus on religious matters may signify a purer form of religion, untainted by secular concerns like politics.
• Parsons also argues that as religious institutions become increasingly specialized, their ethics and values become more generalized, thereby influencing the broader society's values. In the American context, many social values are both Christian and American, leading to the infusion of secular life with religious legitimation. Consequently, from this perspective, disengagement or structural differentiation does not necessarily imply secularization. However, this interpretation relies on the assumption that Christian values guide behavior in American society, a notion that has been contested by critics.

In conclusion, the debate over the implications of institutional religion's disengagement and differentiation in contemporary Western society is ongoing. While some researchers view this shift as evidence of secularization, others argue that it reflects a more specialized and focused role for religious institutions. Understanding this debate is crucial for grasping the evolving role of religion in modern societies.

Institutional Religion - Religious Pluralism

Institutional religion and religious pluralism have been greatly influenced by the concept of a truly religious society, as seen in small-scale societies and medieval European societies. In these societies, a common faith and established church serve to reinforce social norms and values and integrate society. However, in contemporary Western societies, religious pluralism has emerged, with multiple denominations and sects replacing the common faith and established church. This has been interpreted as evidence of secularization, as competing religious institutions reduce the power of religion in society.

• The emergence of denominations has weakened the influence of religion, as argued by Bryan Wilson, who claims that only when a single religion has a monopoly on the Truth can it effectively reinforce social norms and values and integrate society. Berger and Luckmann also argue that the presence of multiple religious institutions with divergent views of the supernatural weakens the influence of religion in society, as no single universe of meaning is provided for all members. The ecumenical movement, which aims to unite Christian churches and denominations, has been seen as an attempt to reverse the trend towards religious pluralism. However, Wilson interprets the ecumenical movement as further evidence of secularization, as organizations amalgamate when they are weak.
• The proliferation of sects has also been interpreted as a further fragmentation of institutional religion, indicating the weakening hold of religion over society. Sects are often small religious groups with unconventional beliefs and practices, which criticize mainstream culture. The growth of new religious movements, such as Hare Krishna and Transcendental Meditation, has been seen as evidence of the continuing vitality of sects. Peter Berger argues that belief in the supernatural can only survive in a sectarian form in a secular society, as individuals must cut themselves off from secularizing influences and seek support from like-minded individuals. Hence, sects are considered evidence of secularization.
• However, from another perspective, sects and new religious movements can be seen as the least secularized of religious institutions and, therefore, the most religious. Their members have not compromised their religious beliefs to fit in with wider society, as in denominations. Their lives often revolve around their religion, which has a vitality and commitment not often found in denominations. In this sense, true religion lives on in sects and new religious movements, untainted by the secular influences of wider society. Thus, the debate over the significance of religious pluralism and the presence of sects and new religious movements in contemporary society continues, as different perspectives offer contrasting views on the role of institutional religion in modern times.

Institutional Religion - The Secularization of Religious Institutions

Institutional religion refers to the secularization of religious institutions, which means that religious organizations increasingly emphasize worldly concerns rather than traditional teachings and beliefs. This phenomenon is particularly evident in the United States, where membership and attendance of religious institutions are high compared to Western Europe. Critics argue that this secularization results in a loss of "authentic religion," which should involve a strong commitment to religious teachings, a deep inner conviction of the reality of supernatural power, and a refusal to compromise religious beliefs with those of the wider society.

• According to sociologist Will Herberg, the secularization of religion in America can be attributed to three main factors. First, Americans feel a need to identify with a social group, and church membership and attendance serve as symbols of this identification. Second, American society is becoming increasingly "other-directed," meaning that individuals are more concerned with fitting in and conforming to social norms. Church membership provides a sense of belonging and security for these individuals. Third, religion in America is often subordinated to the "American Way of Life," which includes values such as democracy, free enterprise, and material success. Consequently, religious institutions often reflect and support these values rather than focusing on traditional theological doctrine.
• Despite these changes, some critics argue that evangelical Christianity, which emphasizes a strong commitment to biblical teachings and supernatural elements, is growing at a faster rate than traditional denominations. This suggests that there may still be a significant number of people in the United States who seek "authentic religion." Additionally, it has been suggested that the secularized religion observed in modern America may not be a new phenomenon, as foreign visitors in the 19th century also commented on the lack of depth and religious content in American religious institutions.
• In conclusion, the debate on the secularization of religious institutions ultimately depends on one's perspective on what constitutes "authentic religion." While it is evident that religious institutions in the United States have undergone significant changes in response to societal shifts, it is still a matter of debate whether these changes have led to a loss of genuine religious commitment and belief.

Religion and Society - Generalization

The above content discusses the role of religion in Western society, specifically focusing on the influence of religious beliefs and values on social norms, values, action, and consciousness. It highlights four primary views of the changing role of religion in Western industrial society: generalization, individuation, transformation, and desacrilization.

• In the context of generalization, the text refers to the argument made by Talcott Parsons that as religious institutions become more specialized, religious values become increasingly generalized. He claims that American society is highly moral and is based ultimately on Christian values. These values may not be explicitly religious anymore, but they still serve as a foundation for societal values and provide general guidelines for conduct. For instance, the practice of medicine has shifted from being associated with religious rituals to being a secular institution; yet, it is still grounded in the Christian value of caring for and curing the sick.
• David Martin applies a similar argument to British society, asserting that Christian values are integral to social values. He believes that these values play a crucial role in setting divine limits on power and are essential in British society. However, both Parsons and Martin's arguments lack substantial evidence to support their claims, leading to the primary issue with the generalization thesis: its vagueness.

Religion and Society- Individuation

Robert N. Bellah contends that the perception of modern individuals as secular, materialistic, and devoid of religious sentiment is fundamentally misguided. He argues that evaluating the significance of religion through religious institutions alone is erroneous, as religion has evolved to become more of an individual pursuit for meaning rather than a collective act of worship. This transformation has led to the individuation of religion, where individuals strive for their own salvation and discover their unique path to ultimate meaning. Consequently, the significance of religion has not diminished; instead, its mode of expression has undergone a change.

Bellah asserts that in contemporary Western society, there is a growing acceptance of the idea that individuals must work out their own ultimate solutions, with the church merely providing a conducive environment for this quest without imposing a predetermined set of answers. This grants modern individuals more freedom than ever before to explore and create their own ultimate meaning. However, critics argue that Bellah's definition of religion, as "a set of symbolic forms and acts which relate man to the ultimate conditions of his existence," broadens the concept too much. Furthermore, Bellah does not offer substantial evidence to demonstrate that the search for ultimate meaning is widespread in contemporary Western society.

Religion and Society - Transformation

Many sociologists argue that religious beliefs have evolved into secular guides to action in Western society, as their connection with religion has weakened. Max Weber, a prominent sociologist, sees the origin of the capitalist spirit in ascetic Protestantism. However, by the eighteenth century, particularly in the United States, the pursuit of wealth had lost its religious and ethical significance. Weber believed that ascetic Protestantism laid the foundation for its own demise, as it encouraged worldly success and provided a rational outlook on life. Once these teachings were integrated into a rational capitalist system, religious direction and validation quickly diminished.

• Two factors contributed to the transformation of ascetic Protestantism into secular guides to action. Firstly, the secularizing influence of wealth, as material goods provided sufficient motivation for the continued accumulation of wealth, eventually dominating people's lives. Secondly, the mechanization of production in industrial society replaced religious motivation as the driving force behind hard work and wealth accumulation. Industrial society developed its own momentum, rendering the "spirit of religious asceticism" unnecessary.
• Despite controversy over Weber's interpretation of the relationship between ascetic Protestantism and capitalism, it remains debatable whether modern society's guides to action originated from religious beliefs. It is also unclear whether the beliefs of ascetic Protestantism have been transformed or generalized, as some argue that the Protestant ethic of hard work as a virtue and moral duty still persists as a general guide to action.

Religion and Society - Desacrilization

The desacralization thesis argues that in contemporary Western society, the sacred and religious beliefs have lost their significance in guiding human actions and interpreting the world. This has led to a secularization of consciousness, with supernatural forces no longer seen as controlling the world. The theory is mainly based on the works of Max Weber, Bryan Wilson, and Peter Berger.

• Max Weber proposed that industrial society is characterized by rationalization and intellectualization, which has led to the disenchantment of the world. The supernatural has been removed from society, and human actions are now directed by rational thought rather than religious beliefs. Rational action involves calculating the importance of alternative goals and the effectiveness of various means to attain these goals, rejecting the guidelines provided by emotion, tradition, or religion.
• Bryan Wilson, in his book Religion in a Secular Society, identifies four factors that encouraged the development of rational thinking and a rational worldview: ascetic Protestantism, the rational organization of society, increased knowledge of the social and physical world, and the development of rational ideologies and organizations to solve social problems. Wilson argues that a rational worldview is the enemy of religion, as it is based on testing arguments and beliefs through rational procedures, while religion is based on faith and is non-rational.
• Peter Berger, within the framework of the sociology of knowledge, maintains that people in Western society increasingly view the world and their lives without the benefit of religious interpretations, leading to a secularization of consciousness. He agrees with Weber and Wilson that the process of rationalization is the decisive variable for secularization, as it rejects faith and removes the mystery, magic, and authority of religion.
• In their book The Homeless Mind, Berger, along with Brigitte Berger and Hansfried Kellner, present a new interpretation of the reasons for the secularization of consciousness. They argue that modern industrial society is highly differentiated and segmented, leading to a plurality of life worlds with different meanings, values, and realities. This pluralization of life worlds makes it difficult for religion to integrate the various aspects of social life in one comprehensive universe of meaning, leading to a general uncertainty and undermining the plausibility of religious definitions of reality.
• The desacralization thesis is challenging to evaluate, as it relies heavily on the impressions of researchers rather than hard data. Additionally, it compares industrial society with unspecified pre-industrial societies, in which religion presumably provided a guide to action and a basis for meaning. Despite these challenges, the desacralization thesis offers valuable insights into the changing role and significance of religion in contemporary Western society.

Secularization – Conclusion

Secularization has been a topic of debate among scholars for quite some time, particularly with respect to the supposed decline of religion in modern societies. One of the key issues surrounding this debate is the assumption of the existence of truly religious societies in pre-industrial times. Anthropologist Mary Douglas challenges this assumption, arguing that all types of skepticism, materialism, and spiritual fervor can be found in tribal societies, and that it is a Western illusion to think of all "primitive" societies as pious and credulous. Similarly, historian K.V. Thomas points out that there is insufficient evidence to determine the extent of religious faith and practice in the European past, further complicating the measurement of secularization.

• The problem of measurement is a significant challenge in the secularization debate. Sociologist Bryan Wilson, despite being convinced of the ongoing secularization process in Western society, admits that there is no adequate way to test the strength of religious commitment. Public opinion polls showing a high percentage of belief in God do not necessarily indicate the strength or importance of religious belief in people's lives. Charles Glock contends that researchers have been unable to accurately measure the significance of religion due to a lack of comprehensive conceptualization of religion and religiousness. Glock and Stark suggest a framework of five core dimensions of religiousness – belief, practice, experience, knowledge, and consequences – as a potential solution to this problem.
• However, even with a more clearly defined framework for measuring religiousness, there remains a fundamental challenge in research methodology: accurately measuring subjective factors such as the strength of religious commitment and uncovering the meanings and motives behind social action. While Glock and Stark's proposal may represent an improvement in research design, it does not fully resolve this issue. In conclusion, the secularization debate is complex and multifaceted, and further research is needed to better understand and measure the role of religion in modern societies.

Conclusion

The secularization debate remains complex and contentious, as researchers grapple with the challenges of defining and measuring religion and its role in modern societies. Various perspectives on the changing role of religion in society, such as generalization, individuation, transformation, and desacralization, contribute to the ongoing discussion. While recent efforts, such as Glock and Stark's framework of five core dimensions of religiousness, aim to improve research methodology, accurately measuring subjective factors and uncovering the meanings and motives behind social action remains a challenge. Further research and exploration are needed to better understand and assess the influence of religion in contemporary societies.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) of Religion in Modern Society: Secularization

What is secularization, and why is it difficult to agree on a single definition?

Secularization is the process whereby religious thinking, practice, and institutions lose social significance. It is difficult to agree on a single definition because the concept has been used in various ways in sociology, and different interpretations of religion result in differing perspectives on secularization.

How has participation in institutional religion changed in Western societies over time?

Participation in institutional religion has generally declined over the past century, with decreases in church attendance, baptisms, confirmations, church marriages, and Sunday school attendances. The number of clergy has also decreased, and the decline is observed across all significant denominations in most West European countries.

What is religious pluralism, and how does it relate to the secularization debate?

Religious pluralism refers to the presence of multiple religious denominations, sects, and beliefs in a society, replacing a common faith and established church. The emergence of religious pluralism has been interpreted as evidence of secularization, as competing religious institutions reduce the power of religion in society.

What are the four primary views of the changing role of religion in Western industrial society?

The four primary views are generalization, individuation, transformation, and desacrilization. Generalization refers to the idea that religious values become generalized in society; individuation suggests that religion has become more of an individual pursuit; transformation argues that religious beliefs have evolved into secular guides to action; and desacrilization posits that the sacred and religious beliefs have lost their significance in guiding human actions and interpreting the world.

What challenges are faced by researchers when measuring secularization?

There are several challenges, including the lack of consensus on what secularization is and how to measure it, the assumption of the existence of truly religious societies in pre-industrial times, and accurately measuring subjective factors such as the strength of religious commitment and uncovering the meanings and motives behind social action.