Revolts of 1857 and other revolts against British Raj | History(Prelims) by UPSC Toppers PDF Download

Revolts of 1857 and other revolts against British Raj

Causes of the Revolt of 1857

The revolt of 1857 was a result of combination of political, economic, socio-religious and military causes.

Political  causes of Revolt of 1857

 The old aristocracy was alienated by British Raj on various pretexts. This alienation reached at its apex level during the reign of Lord Dalhausie. He annexed various states and Doctrine of Lapse became the most powerful instrument in annexation of Indian states. According to Doctrine of Lapse, an Indian state was annexed by British if the ruler had no natural heir.  As a result the aristocracy was in the favor of uprooting the British Raj.

The leaders of the revolt were mainly from the aristocracy and had multiple grievances against the British rule. For example, Nana Sahib was refused pension, as he was the adopted son of Peshwa Baji Rao II. Avadh was annexed in 1856, on charges of mal-administration. Satara, Jhansi, Nagpur and Sambhalpur were annexed owing to Doctrine of lapse.

Economic causes of Revolt of 1857

The economic policy of the British Raj destroyed the Indian economy on all fronts.

 The exorbitant tax rates from the cultivators, introduction of new land revenue arrangements in India without proper understanding of the ground realities, forcibly evictions and cruel methods to extract the land revenue resulted in breakdown of traditional agrarian economy.  

Discriminatory tariff policy against Indian products and destruction of traditional handicrafts resulted into deindustrialization and thousands of artisans suffered.

The drain of wealth from India to Britain without any quid-pro-quo and distorted pattern of foreign trade, wherein the raw material were exported from India while finished goods were imported had serious implications.

Socio-religious causes of Revolt of 1857

The racial discrimination by British against Indians, forceful conversion to Christianity and social reforms like abolition of Sati, 1829; legalization of widow remarriage, 1856 etc. offended the orthodox elements of Indian society.

Military causes of Revolt of 1857

British discriminated against the Indian soldiers and adopted the policy of exclusion in the service conditions and promotion by which the high and key posts were reserved only for the Europeans.

Immediate causes of Revolt of 1857  

The introduction of Enfield greased rifles whose cartridges were said to have a greased cover made of beef and pork sparked off the revolt. It antagonized both Hindu and Muslim soldiers

The course of events

• On March 29, 1857, an Indian sepoy of 34 Native Infantry, Mangal Pandey, killed two British officers-Hugeson and Baugh-on parade at Barrackpore (near Calcutta).
• The 7^th Avadh regiment was disbanded as it defied its officers.
• The mutiny really started at Merrut on 10^th May 1857. The 3^rd Native Infantry revolted. The occasion was the punishment of some sepoys for their refusal to use the greased cartridges. The soldiers along-with other groups of civilians, went on a rampage shouting ‘Maro Firangi ko’. They broke open jails, murdered Europeans, burnt their houses and marched to Delhi after sunset.
• The appearance of the marching soldiers next morning (i.e. 11th May) in Delhi was a signal to the local soldiers, who in turn revolted, seized the city and proclaimed the 82-year old Bahadur Shah ‘Zafar’ , as Shahenshah-i-Hindustan (i.e. Emperor of India).
• Within a month of the capture of Delhi, the revolt spread to the different parts of India.
• South India remained quiet and Punjab and Bengal were only marginally affected.
• The British allies during the revolt were Sindhia, the Nizam of Hyderabad and the Begum of Bhopal.

Major Centres of Revolt of 1857 and the events:

The nature of revolt

As per the British historians the revolt was merely a “Sepoy mutiny”, on the other hand as per the Indian scholars it was the first war of independence. However, the exact nature of the revolt was somewhat between these extreme views.

• It was not just the “Sepoy mutiny” because it was a popular revolt against the British imperialism. The revolt was not just confined to the sepoys or soldiers, but was much broader in base. The civilian population, aristocracy, peasants, religious leaders etc played active role in the revolt.
• The revolt was also not the first war of independence because of the following reasons:

1. India was merely a geographical term at that time; it was only during the early 20^th century that a pan Indian consciousness generated in India.It was also not the “first” revolt as there were series of civil, tribal and military revolts that took place before 1857.
2. The leaders of revolt like Rani Luxmi Bai, Nana Sahib, Tantya Tope, Begam Hazrat Mahal etc had personal grievances against the British Raj.
3. Also the leaders like Nana Sahib, Rani Luxmibai and Bahadur Shah Zafar were initially reluctant to join the revolt.
4. The aim of the leaders was not the independence of India, but to get back their kingdoms which were annexed British on one pretext or the other.

It has been said that dead Julius Caesar was more powerful than Julius Caesar alive. The same may be said about the Revolt of 1857. Whatever might have been its original character; it soon became a symbol of challenge to the mighty British Empire in India and remained a shining star for the rise and growth of the Indian national movement.

Causes of failure of Revolt of 1857

The following were the causes of failure:

1. British Raj was better equipped with the technology and equipments as compared to the revolutionaries. It had some brilliant officers which played key role in suppressing the revolt.
2. The revolt didn’t spread to entire country. South India remained quiet and Punjab and Bengal were only marginally affected.
3. Disunity of Indians and poor planning.
4. There was no vision for the post mutiny institutions and the leaders didn’t have the forward looking program.
5. Lack of complete nationalism-Scindias, Holkars, Nizam and others actively helped the British.
6. Lack of coordination between sepoys, peasants, zamindars and other classes.

Impact of the Revolt of 1857

1. The major impact of the revolt was the end of East India Company’s rule in India. By the Government of India Act 1858, the British government took over the rule of India in its own hand. A minister of the British government, called the Secretary of state for India was made responsible for the governance of India.
2. The British Governor-General of India was now also given the title of Viceroy.
3. The revolt marked the end of British Imperialism and Princely States were assured against annexation. The policy towards the native states changed from subordinate isolation to that of subordinate union.
4. Far-reaching changes were made in the administration and increase of white soldiers in the army.
5. India army was thoroughly reorganized and an ideology of martial race was developed to recruit Sikhs and Gorkhas.
6. After the revolt, the British pursued the policy of ‘divine and rule’.
7. The British government decided not to interfere in the matter of religion of Indians. This derailed the socio-religious reforms by government.

 Important books on revolt of 1857

The tribal revolt under British rule

 The civil revolts under British rule

• Sanyasi (Bengal, 1780): lt was led by religious monks against British restrictions and ruin of peasantry.
• Kattabomman Revolt (1792-98): By Vira Pandya Kattabomman against imposition of British Suzeraiity.
• Paik Revolt (Orissa, 1804-06): Led by Bakshi Jagabandhu against British occupation and revenue policy.
• Velu Thampi (Travancore, 1805): Led by Velu Thampi against British extortions.
• Kittur Revolt (Karnataka, 1824): Led by Chinnama and Ryappa against British interference in Kittur.
• Pagal Panthis (Maimansinh, 1825-33): Led by Karam Shah and Tipu. Religious nature.
• Raju (Vizag, 1827): Led by Birabhadra Raju.
• Faraizi (1838): Led by Haji Saraitullah and Dadu Mian for cause of tenants.
• Satavandi (Maharashtra, 1839): Led by Phond Savant and Anna Sahib against British rule.
• Kuka (1840): Led by Bhagat Jawahar Mal or Sian Saheb in Punjab.
• Gadakari (1844): It was against revenue policy in Kolhapur.
• Poligar (Karnool, 1846): It was led by Narasimha Reddy.

Peasant movements under British Raj