Rise of Urban Centres, Trade routes and Economic Growth | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Rise of Urban Centres

• In the 6th century BCE, north India witnessed the emergence of urban settlements with distinct urban morphology and architecture amidst the bustling villages and surrounding forests of the Gangetic plain. This period marked the beginning of the second urbanization in India. The earlier Harappan towns had disappeared around 1500 BCE, and for about a millennium, towns were virtually absent from the Indian landscape. However, with the emergence of towns in the middle Gangetic basin during the 6th century BCE, a new phase of urbanization began.
• These cities served various functions and identities, acting as centers of political control, craft production, or trade, with some cities combining all these roles. The foundations of this second phase of urbanization in the north, following the Harappan period, were laid in the preceding centuries with the establishment of a robust agricultural base that ensured sustained food surpluses. This agricultural surplus facilitated the growth of settlements in terms of population, number, and size.
• Increased craft specialization, trade, and the introduction of money contributed to a higher degree of social complexity. Political leadership played a crucial role in providing central direction and control over these emerging urban centers.
• The material life in north India, particularly in regions like eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, can be reconstructed through a combination of Pali texts, Sanskrit Sutra literature, and archaeological evidence.

The Pali canon describes various types of urban settlements:

• Pura: A fortified town or city.
• Nagara: A fortress or town.
• Nigama: A market town, intermediate in size and social complexity between a gama and nagara, often associated with commercial activities.
• Rajadhani: A capital city.
• Nagaraka: A small town; mahanagara referred to a large city.

Prominent mahanagaras included Champa, Rajagriha, Shravasti, Saketa, Kaushambi, and Varanasi. The texts frequently mention the city walls, gates, watchtowers, and the vibrant urban life.

• Archaeologically, the 6th century BCE marks the beginning of the NBPW (Northern Black Polished Ware) phase, characterized by the introduction of metallic money, increased use of iron implements, burnt bricks, and ring wells. These urban centers exhibited a greater concentration of people compared to villages, offering more alternative sources of livelihood and a wider variety of available products.
• The exchange centers and local markets, known as nigama and pulabhedana, were larger than the gramas. Towns were referred to as nagaras, with larger towns called mahanagaras.
• Many towns mentioned in Pali and Sanskrit texts, such as Kausambi, Sravasti, Ayodhya, Kapilavastu, Varanasi, Vaisali, Rajgir, Pataliputra, and Champa, have been excavated, revealing signs of habitation and mud structures dating back to the advent of the NBPW phase or its middle.

Preconditions for Urbanization and State Formation

Surplus Production

• Both state formation and urbanization depended on the surplus of agricultural production.
• The small landholdings of town dwellers prevented them from producing their own food, making them reliant on village folk for food supply.
• It was only in the sixth century B.C. that the people of the Gangetic valley learned to produce two or three crops a year.
• Wet rice cultivation was introduced, allowing for greater yields than other crops.
• Over time, they began producing more than their own needs, leading to surplus production.
• The iron ploughshare-based food-producing economy supported not only direct producers but also many others.
• Before large-scale settlements in the Gangetic valley, most of the area was forest or marshland. Clearing these for agriculture required labor, necessitating an administrative system to control and direct such labor.

Technique of Wet Paddy Cultivation/Paddy Transplantation:

• Rice was the staple cereal produced in eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar during this period, with various types of paddy and paddy fields described in Pali texts.
• The practice of paddy transplantation, as found in Pali and Sanskrit texts, suggests that large-scale paddy transplantation began during the time of the Buddha.
• Paddy transplantation or wet paddy production significantly increased yields.
• The yields per acre in wet rice cultivation are substantially higher than those of wheat or millet in traditional agriculture.
• Early Buddhist texts frequently mention different varieties of rice and paddy fields, indicating a decisive shift to wet rice cultivation.
• Increased food production enabled the sustenance of a growing population, reflected in the rise of settlements in archaeological records of this period.
• This surplus production created the conditions for the emergence of social groups not engaged in food production.

Control of Surplus:

• Surplus production in a society must be collected by a group, which later distributes it. This collecting group is usually small, and their collection, control, and distribution of the surplus must be acceptable to the larger society.
• In the Gangetic valley in the sixth century B.C., a small group that controlled surplus agricultural products gained power.
• This group claimed authority and special status within society.
• Meanwhile, another segment of the population could pursue professional crafts as their livelihood, knowing that they could exchange their crafted products for essential goods in the market.
• Similar to farmers, these craftsmen also relied on a group that collected and distributed crafted products and organized the distribution of raw materials for industries.
• This arrangement facilitated the collection of taxes and the maintenance of armies over the long term, creating conditions for the formation and sustenance of large territorial states.

Emergence of Economic Centres:

• Many townships originated from economic activities, particularly markets.
• In these cases, different villages producing various agricultural surpluses selected a particular convenient place to bring their commodities and exchange them with others, known as the barter system.
• Some of these selected market places were located along trade routes, accelerating the process of urbanization.
• Ujjain emerged as a significant urban center through such a process.

Rise of Territorial Politics:

• Areas that became centers of political and administrative activities evolved into towns. The capitals of different kingdoms soon transformed into urban areas.
• Examples include Rajagriha of Magadha, Sravasti in Koshala, Kausambi in Vatsa, Champa in Anga, and Ahichchhatra in Panchala.

Role of Religion:

• Religion played a crucial role in urbanization in the Gangetic plain. In the 6th century B.C., people had worship places in only a few locations, where large gatherings occurred with attendees coming from distant places.
• Gradually, these religious sites evolved into towns, with Vaishali being one such town that grew due to its religious significance.

Lack of Vedic Sacrifices in the Middle Gangetic Valley:

• Vedic sacrifices involved gifting away most of the surplus accumulated by chiefs during the performance of sacrifices.
• In the middle Gangetic Valley, Vedic rituals and sacrifices did not hold the same significance as in the upper Gangetic Valley.
• This meant that surpluses collected by chiefs were not expended during sacrifices, allowing the groups controlling this surplus wealth to become the ruling class of the emerging kingdoms.
• On this foundation of wealth, cities of the sixth century B.C. were established.
• Some places exhibited many of the aforementioned characteristics, becoming important centers for administration, economy, and religion. Kausambi was one such urban center.

Rise of Crafts:

• In the Gangetic plains, certain villages emerged based on specialized professions, such as blacksmithing, pottery, carpentry, cloth weaving, and basket weaving.
• These villages developed in areas where new materials were available and had to distribute their produced goods by linking villages to major routes or markets.
• Over time, these villages transformed into towns, becoming significant commercial centers due to their production and distribution capabilities.
• Examples of such centers include Vaisali, Shravasti, Champa, Rajagriha, Kausambi, and Kashi.
• Towns like Ujjain and Taxila could trade their commodities over long distances due to their strategic locations on trade routes.
• Regardless of the causes behind the origin of towns, they eventually evolved into markets inhabited by artisans and merchants.
• Some towns exhibited a concentration of artisans; for instance, Saddalaputta at Vaisali had 500 potters’ shops.
• Both artisans and merchants were organized into guilds under their respective headmen, with records of 18 guilds of artisans, although only specific guilds, such as those of smiths, carpenters, leather workers, and painters, are mentioned.
• Artisans and merchants typically lived in fixed localities within towns, with references to streets dedicated to specific trades, such as merchants’ streets in Varanasi and streets of ivory-workers.
• Craft specialization developed due to the guild system and localization, with crafts generally being hereditary, where sons learned the family trade from their fathers.

Role of Coins:

• The use of coins significantly aided the process of urbanization and economic exchange.
• While terms like nishka and satamana in Vedic texts are believed to refer to coins, actual coins did not appear until the sixth century B.C. It seems that during Vedic times, exchange was conducted through barter, with cattle sometimes serving as currency.
• Coins made of metal first emerged during the age of Gautama Buddha, primarily made of silver, with some copper coins also appearing. These early coins, known as punch-marked coins, were stamped with various marks such as hills, trees, fish, and other symbols.
• The highest valued coin was the silver satamana, followed by the Karsapana, with copper masas and kakani being smaller denomination coins.
• The earliest hoards of these coins have been discovered in eastern Uttar Pradesh and Magadha, with some early coins also found in Taxila.
• Pali texts indicate the widespread use of money, with wages and prices being paid in it. The use of money became so prevalent that even trivial matters, like the price of a dead mouse, were estimated in coins.

Role of Iron in Changing Society

• The use of iron tools, particularly in agriculture around 600 B.C., had a profound impact on society.
• Previously, people cleared land by burning forests, but with iron axes, forests could be cleared more efficiently, expanding land available for cultivation.
• Iron tools were effectively utilized for land preparation and ploughing, with the iron ploughshare enabling deeper ploughing, especially in heavy and dry soils, such as those in the Gangetic valley.
• Iron played a crucial role in transforming rainfed, forested, hard-soil areas of the middle Ganga basin into arable land for agriculture and settlement.
• Agriculture advanced significantly due to the use of iron ploughshares and the fertility of alluvial soil in regions like the area between Allahabad and Rajmahal.
• Numerous iron tools and implements have been discovered in places like Ujjain, Sravasti, and Hastinapur, indicating the proficiency of smiths in hardening iron tools.
• Some tools from Rajghat (Varanasi) were made from iron ores sourced from Singhbhum and Mayurbhanj, suggesting that people became familiar with the richest iron mines in the country, which would have increased the supply of tools for crafts and agriculture.
• The use of iron not only facilitated the expansion of agricultural fields but also contributed to urbanization and state formation.
• Iron was also utilized in various crafts, weaponry, and other fields.
• However, it is important to note that the mere presence of iron technology and agricultural surplus did not guarantee urbanization or state formation everywhere.
• Some regions, like megalithic societies, exhibited these features but remained pre-state and pre-urban societies.
• Conversely, some areas witnessed the rise of urban centers and early states.
• This indicates that besides iron usage, other factors were also crucial for societal transformation.
• The process of collection and redistribution of surplus was a key factor, involving two steps:
• Firstly, a portion of the surplus was collected as revenue for the treasury.
• Secondly, ensuring a continuous supply of revenue required control over farmers and craftsmen.
• Thus, a new relationship was established in many areas between those who labored in agriculture and crafts and those who controlled these laborers.
• Only in these areas did urban centers and states emerge during the 6th century B.C.

Salient Features of the Second Urbanization

The second urbanization in India, which occurred around 600 BC to 300 BC, was characterized by the emergence of new cities and towns, advancements in urban planning, and the establishment of trade networks. This period was marked by significant changes in society, economy, and culture, leading to the growth of urban centers in the Gangetic plains and beyond.

Geographical Extent: The second urbanization primarily took place in northern India, particularly in the Mid-Gangetic plains. This region saw the rise of new urban centers and the expansion of existing settlements.

Two Areas of Urbanization

Western or Doab Area

• The western or doab area of the Gangetic plain experienced significant urbanization during this period.
• Archaeological evidence suggests that this region was characterized by the use of metals such as copper, bronze, and iron, indicating a chalcolithic society.
• The people in this area were known for their distinct pottery styles, particularly the Painted Gray Ware Culture, which flourished from around 1200 BC to 400 BC.
• This culture was marked by the production of pots with gray paint on the surface, reflecting the artistic and functional aspects of pottery-making during this time.
• Urbanization in the western Gangetic plain was accompanied by the formation of states, indicating a shift towards more complex social and political structures.

Eastern Plains

• The eastern plains of the Gangetic region also saw significant urbanization, but with distinct cultural differences compared to the western doab.
• In this area, the pottery styles were different, with a preference for black and red surface potteries.
• Over time, the eastern societies transitioned to using more refined and luxurious pottery, such as the Northern Black Polished Ware, which was prominent between 700 BC and 200 BC.
• The Northern Black Polished Ware was characterized by its glossy and shining appearance, marking a shift in pottery aesthetics and technology.
• The sixth century BC is considered a pivotal point in this region, marking the beginning of the Northern Black Polished (NBP) phase, which was archaeologically significant for its distinctive pottery style.
• This period also saw an increase in population and the expansion of urban centers, with the eastern plains becoming a hub of activity and cultural development.

Population and Migration

Doab Region

• Initially, the population in the doab region was small and settled close to rivers.
• Over time, the population expanded, moving to interior areas and clearing land for cultivation.

Eastern Plains

• In the eastern plains, people practiced wet rice cultivation, which provided higher yields.
• This agricultural practice attracted migrants from the northwest, possibly due to scarcity of water or climate changes in their original regions.
• Migrants from Punjab and the northwest moved to the doab and eastern plains in search of fertile land.
• These new settlers influenced the early inhabitants with technological knowledge, leading to a mingling of cultures and accelerating urbanization.

Increase in Population

• Excavated structures from this period are generally unimpressive individually, but collectively indicate a significant increase in population compared to earlier settlements like the Painted Gray Ware sites.
• Urban centers exhibited a greater population concentration than villages, offering more alternative sources of livelihood and a wider variety of products for consumption.

Types of Cities and Towns

Pura

• In early Vedic literature, the term pura referred to fortified settlements or temporary refuges.
• Over time, it evolved to denote cities, often associated with the residence of kings or ruling families.

Durga

• Durga denoted fortified capitals of kings.
• Fortifications protected urban centers and facilitated control over populations.

Nigama

• In Pali literature,Nigama referred to merchant towns.
• Some Nigamas likely evolved from villages specializing in crafts.

Nagara

• Nagara was a common term for towns or cities, first used in the Taittiriya Aranyaka.
• Mahanagara referred to cities combining political and commercial functions.

Urban Planning

Towns of the Gangetic plains in the 6th century B.C. shared common characteristics, including:

• Urban planning with specific areas allocated for different occupational groups.
• Use of burnt bricks for construction.
• Presence of fortifications such as ramparts.
• Advanced drainage systems.
• Use of wooden palisades in some towns, possibly from Maurya or pre-Maurya times.
• Some towns featured impressive monumental buildings, such as palaces.
• Religious institutions, like Buddhist monasteries, were central in some towns, while others lacked such religious structures.

Use of Writing (Brahmi Script)

• The period following the Harappan culture saw the beginnings of the written tradition in ancient Indian history.
• Brahmanical, Buddhist, and Jain texts refer to the conditions of this period, suggesting that writing started a couple of centuries before Asoka.
• Writing facilitated trade, tax collection, and the maintenance of a large professional army.
• Sulvasutras, dealing with sophisticated measurement, presuppose writing and may have aided in the demarcation of fields and houses.

Strong Linkage Between Rural and Urban Areas

• The emergence of crafts, commerce, and urbanization in the middle Gangetic basin was closely linked to a strong rural base.
• Non-agriculturists in towns relied on agriculturists in villages for food, while artisans and traders provided tools and goods to rural folk.
• For example, a village trader depositing 500 ploughs with a town merchant indicates the interdependence between rural and urban economies.
• Iron tools like axes, adzes, and sickles found from the NBPW phase in Kausambi were likely meant for peasants, purchased by them in cash or kind.
• Nobles in towns collected taxes, tributes, and tithes from rural areas, further illustrating the interconnectedness of rural and urban life.

Emergence of Coins

• The introduction of coins marked a significant evolution in urban economic practices.
• Coins like kahapana, nikkha, kamsa, pada, masaka, and kakanika were first mentioned in ancient Pali texts.
• These texts were supported by archaeological findings of punch-marked coins, primarily made of silver.
• The advent of money did not eliminate barter but signified a pivotal shift in economic transactions, influencing trade in the long run.

Usury and Money-Lending

• The emergence of money also brought about the practice of usury, or money-lending.
• Pali texts provide numerous references to this profession, detailing instruments of credit, instances of pawning possessions, and even the occasional pledging of family members by debtors.
• Debtors were barred from joining the Buddhist sangha until their debts were settled.
• Interestingly, the expanding range of material goods available for consumption was accompanied by the rise of doctrines advocating the renunciation of material possessions.

Formation of Guilds

Gautama Dharmasutra References

• The Gautama Dharmasutra identifies various occupations of the Vaishyas, including agriculture, trade, cattle rearing, and money-lending.
• It suggests that farmers, traders, herdsmen, money-lenders, and artisans had the authority to set rules for their professions.
• The king was expected to make legal decisions after consulting these authoritative figures, indicating a form of corporate organization.

Buddhist Texts and Guilds

• Buddhist texts provide clearer evidence of guilds' emergence.
• Terms like shreni, nigama, puga, vrata, and sangha in ancient Indian texts refer to various corporate organizations, including guilds.
• The Vinaya Pitaka mentions the guilds (puga) of Shravasti supplying food for monks and nuns.
• Some Jatakas list 18 guilds, highlighting the close relationship between guild leaders and kings.

Items of Exchange

Types of Goods Sold in Markets

• Markets were vibrant centers for the buying and selling of various commodities, including:
• Utensils and Tools: Made from metals like iron, copper, tin, and silver.
• Salt: Procured and sold in significant quantities.
• Cotton Cloth: The cotton cloth from Kasi was particularly popular and attracted many buyers.
• Woollen Blankets: These were brought from the distant north-western province of Gandhara.
• Horses: Imported from regions like Sind and Kamboja.
• Jewelry and Ornaments: Including bangles made from conch shell, intricate gold ornaments, and various decorative items made from ivory, precious stones, and other materials.

Specialized Streets in Markets

• Literary sources indicate that different types of goods were sold in designated streets, reflecting the organized nature of these ancient markets.

Rise of Long-Distance Trade

• Merchants engaged in long-distance trade, transporting products of crafts over vast distances.
• Large quantities of goods, sometimes as many as 500 cartloads, were transported, including fine textiles, ivory objects, pots, etc.
• Important cities of the time were strategically located along river banks and trade routes, facilitating trade connections.
• Sravasti was linked with significant trade hubs like Kausambi and Varanasi.
• Varanasi was especially renowned as a major trade center during the period of the Buddha.

Trade Routes and Connections

• Trade routes connected various important cities, facilitating the flow of goods and commerce.
• Traders from Kosala and Magadha traveled northward via Mathura to Taxila.
• From Mathura, traders moved southward and westward to Ujjain and the Gujarat coast.

Trade Routes and Ports

Riparian Ports

• Among the riparian ports, notable mentions include Sahajati(Central India),Kausambi(Yamuna),Banaras(Ganges),Champa(Ganges),Pataliputra(Ganges), and Pattala(Indus).

Inland Trade Routes

• The main inland routes radiated from Banaras and Sravasti.
• Chief articles of trade included silk, embroidery, ivory, jewelry, and gold.

Internal Trade Routes: Uttarapatha and Dakshinapatha

Uttarapatha

• Uttarapatha, or the Great Northern Road, was a major trade route running from eastern Afghanistan through the Gangetic plains to Bengal.
• This route linked regions like Kirata(possibly Magadha),Kamboja,Gandhara, and the Yavana countries.
• The route followed the Ganges River, crossing the Indo-Gangetic watershed, through the Punjab to Taxila and further to Balkh in Central Asia.
• The eastern terminus was Tamraliptika(Tamluk), at the Ganges' mouth in Bengal.
• Uttarapatha became significant due to increasing maritime contacts with seaports on India's eastern coast during the Maurya rule.
• States along Uttarapatha, like Kamboja and Gandhara, engaged in commerce with nations in Myanmar,Suvarnabhumi,south-west China, and other Southeast Asian nations.
• Merchants from Uttarapatha were involved in international trade, following routes like the Kamboja-Dvaravati Caravan Route.
• Ports like Bharukaccha(modern Bharoch) and Supparaka Pattana(modern Nalla-Sopara, near Mumbai) were key for trade with Southern India,Sri Lanka, and Southeast Asian nations.
• Uttarapatha was also known for fine horses and horse dealers, with trade extending to Sri Lanka.

Dakshinapatha

• Dakshinapatha, the Great Southern Highway, originated from Varanasi(Magadha), passing through Ujjaini and the Narmada valley to Pratisthana(Paithan) in the Mahajanapada of Ashmaka(modern Maharashtra).
• This route connected to the western coast of India and extended southward.
• Both Dakshinapatha and Uttarapatha were crucial trade routes since the Iron Age, with the crossing of these highways making Sarnath(near Varanasi) a significant exchange center.
• Sarnath's location facilitated the spread of ideas and goods, leading to the Buddha's first sermon there.
• Goods and ideas flowed along these routes, contributing to the cultural and economic exchange in ancient India.

Trade Items

• Iron Objects: Commonly traded items included various iron tools and implements such as hoes,sickles,knives, and nails.
• Salt: Salt was a significant trade item, mined in the north-west region of India.
• Transport: Goods were transported along the trade routes, with horses being brought into the Gangetic valley.
• Trade System: The exchange system, or barter system, was utilized for trading these items.

Rise of New Urban Classes and Social Strata

Rise of New Urban Classes

• As cities developed, a variety of urban classes emerged, including princes, priests, artisans, traders, administrators, military personnel, and other state functionaries. These individuals played different roles in the functioning and governance of the towns.
• Various types of traders also emerged, such as shopkeepers (apanika), retailers (Kraya-Vikrayika), and money investors (Setthi-Gahapati). These traders contributed to the economic activities of the urban centers.
• With the growth of cities, new classes such as washermen, scavengers, beggars, and sweepers also came into existence. The services provided by sweepers and individuals involved in cremating corpses were essential for maintaining urban sanitation and public health.
• The rise of beggars can be attributed to the breakdown of kin-based societies and the increasing demands on local produce by rulers. There are stories that depict the challenges faced by villagers, such as looting by the king’s men during the day and by robbers at night.
• Professions such as prostitution, medicine, and scribes were also prevalent in these urban settings, reflecting the diverse range of occupations that emerged.

Rise of Social Elite

• Textual evidence from the period indicates the rise of socioeconomic classes with noticeable differences in wealth, status, and control over productive resources.
• Setthi, derived from the Pali term sreshtin, referred to a wealthy businessman involved in trade and money-lending, often living in luxury in cities like Rajagriha and Varanasi.
• The Setthi-putta, or son of a Setthi, was raised in affluence, as illustrated by the story of Sona Kolivisa, whose delicate upbringing led to physical discomfort when he became a monk. The Buddha addressed this by allowing monks to wear shoes.
• Setthis were influential figures in urban communities, with connections to kings and significant social standing.
• Gahapatti, the Pali form of Grihapati, denoted wealthy landowners and heads of households, responsible for producing wealth, particularly through land and agriculture. The term grihapati appears in Vedic literature, while Pali texts use terms like gihi and gahatti in a similar context.
• Society was often divided into three strata: Khattiya (warrior), Brahmana (priest), and Gahapati (landowner). The Khattiya strived for power and territory, the Brahmana focused on religious rituals, and the Gahapati emphasized work and craft.
• References exist to Brahmana gahapatis in Brahmana villages, indicating the interplay between different societal roles.
• The gahapati’s political significance is highlighted by his inclusion among the seven treasures of the chakkavatti, or ideal ruler.
• Setthi-Gahapati describes individuals with both rural and urban bases, controlling land and business enterprises. Their wealth is evident from their ability to pay large medical bills, such as those for the famous physician Jivaka.

Urban Occupations

• Early Buddhist texts enumerate a variety of occupations prevalent in both rural and urban settings.
• In addition to farmers, cattle rearers, and traders, those in the service industry included washermen, barbers, tailors, painters, and cooks.
• The king employed specialists in various roles:
• SOLDIERS(Yodhajivas): Including foot soldiers, archers, cavalry, elephant corps, and chariot units.
• MINISTERS(Mahamachchas).
• GOVERNORS(Ratthikas).
• ESTATE MANAGERS(Pettanikas).
• ROYAL CHAMBERLAIN(Thapati).
• ELEANPH TRAINERS(Hattirohas).
• POLICEMEN(Rajabhatas).
• JAILORS(Bandhanagarikas).
• SLAVES(Dasas and Dasis).
• WAGE-WORKERS(Kammakaras).
• Urban occupations also included those of physicians(Vejja, Bhisakka),surgeons(Sallakata),scribes(Lekha),accounting(Ganana),money changing.
• Various entertainers were part of the urban scene, such as actors(Nata),dancers(Nataka),magicians(Sokajjayika),acrobats(Langhika),drummers(Kumbhathunika), and women fortune-tellers(Ikkhanika). Some of these performers showcased their talents in fairs known as samajas and other occasions.
• The Pali canon mentions numerous artisans, some of whom likely resided and worked in or around cities, supplying goods for urban customers. These included vehicle makers(Yanakara),ivory workers(Dantakara),metal smiths(Kammara),goldsmiths(Suvannakara),silk weavers(Kosiyakara),carpenters(Palaganda),needle makers(Suchikara),reed workers(Nalakaraka),garland makers(Malakara), and potters(Kumbhakara).
• Some craft specialists may have lived in their own settlements on the outskirts of cities. Later evidence from the Jatakas more clearly indicates the localization of certain industries, the association of villages with specific artisan groups, and the hereditary nature of crafts, suggesting that these processes were already underway around 600–300 BCE.

Difference from 1st Urbanization (Harappan Urbanization)

• In the case of the second urbanization, people did not consciously try to replicate the first.
• There were citadels or tall fortresses built at the centers to oversee the towns.
• Many towns or urban centers during the second urbanization emerged along riverbanks.
• These towns were vulnerable to flooding during the rainy seasons, yet there was no effort to protect them by constructing brick foundations or walls.
• The necessities of the townspeople in the Gangetic plains differed from those in Harappa, leading to variations in the characteristics of these two urbanizations.
• The economic picture derived from material remains and Pali texts significantly differed from the rural economy of later Vedic times in western Uttar Pradesh or the economy of certain chalcolithic communities in parts of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh.

Emergence of an Advanced Food-Producing Economy

• For the first time, an advanced food-producing economy spread over the alluvial soil of the middle Gangetic basin, marking the beginning of an urban economy in this region.
• This economy provided sustenance not only to direct producers but also to many others who were neither farmers nor artisans.
• The surplus generated made possible the collection of taxes and the maintenance of armies on a long-term basis.
• This, in turn, created conditions for the formation and sustenance of large territorial states.

Expansion during Mauryan and Post-Mauryan Period

• The trend of urbanization further expanded during the Mauryan and post-Mauryan period.
• The period between 200 BC and 300 AD is known as the golden age of craft, trade, coinage, money lending, and urbanization.

Northern Black Polished Ware Culture (NBPW Culture) and Second Urbanization

• The Northern Black Polished Ware culture is an urban Iron Age culture of the Indian Subcontinent, lasting 700–200 BCE, succeeding the Black and red ware culture and Painted Grey Ware culture.
• It developed around 700 BC, peaking from 500–300 BC, coinciding with the emergence of 16 great states or mahajanapadas in Northern India and the subsequent rise of the Mauryan Empire.
• NBPW was a glossy, shining type of pottery made of fine fabric, characterized by a fine gray metallic ware with a glossy black surface.
• It was a luxury style of burnished pottery used by elites, associated with the emergence of Second Urbanization since the decline of the Indus Valley Civilization.
• NBPW culture saw re-urbanization accompanied by massive embankments and fortifications, significant population growth, increased social stratification, and wide-ranging trade networks.

Similarities and Differences with Harappan Cultures

• There are similarities between NBPW culture and Harappan cultures, such as the ivory dice and combs, a similar system of weights, and the use of mud, baked bricks, and stone in architecture.
• However, important differences exist, such as the increased importance of rice, millet, and sorghum in NBP culture.
• NBP culture may reflect the first state-level organization in the Indian Subcontinent.

Important NBPW Sites

• Charsada (ancient Pushkalavati) and Taxila, in Pakistan
• Delhi or ancient Indraprastha
• Hastinapura, Mathura, Kampil/Kampilya, Ahichatra, Ayodhya, Sravasti, Kausambi, Varanasi in Uttar Pradesh
• Vaishali, Rajgir, Pataliputra, and Champa in Bihar
• Ujjain and Vidisha in Madhya Pradesh
• Mahasthangarh, Chandraketugarh, Wari-Bateshwar, Bangarh, and Mangalkot (all in Bangladesh and West Bengal, India)

Debate over the Impact of Iron Technology

• Occurrence of iron:
• Small quantities of iron occur at a few sites in early 2nd millennium BCE contexts.
• The metal became more widely prevalent in c. 1000–800 BCE.
• During c. 800–500 BCE, the use of iron was known in virtually all regions of the subcontinent, and by this time, most regions (including the Ganga valley) seem to have entered the iron age. However, in certain areas, this transition took place much later.
• Debate over the impact of iron technology on the history of ancient India:
• The debate has especially focused on the Ganga valley in the 1st millennium BCE.
• D.D. Kosambi:
• The eastern movement of the Indo-Aryans was in order to reach the iron ores of south Bihar, and a near-monopoly over these ores was responsible for the political dominance attained by the state of Magadha in early historical times.
• Criticism:
• These hypotheses are untenable, given the very wide distribution of iron ores in the subcontinent.
• Chemical analysis of early iron artefacts at Atranjikhera points to the hills between Agra and Gwalior, not Bihar, as the probable source of ores.
• R. S. Sharma
• He highlighted the role of iron axes in clearing the forests of the Ganga valley and iron ploughs in agricultural expansion in this area.
• He argued that the use of these implements was responsible for generating an agricultural surplus, which paved the way for the second phase of urbanization.
• Religions such as Buddhism were a response to the new socio-economic milieu generated by iron technology.
• A. Ghosh and Niharranjan Ray:
• They argued that the forests of the Ganga valley could have been cleared through burning.
• It was pointed out that Sharma’s argument was not supported by archaeological data, that the impact of iron technology was gradual, that it manifested itself in the mid-NBPW phase when urbanization was well underway, and that socio-political factors had an important role to play in the historical transformations of the Ganga valley in the 1st millennium BCE.
• Makkhan Lal
• He described the idea of large-scale forest clearance through the use of the iron axe and the generation of an agricultural surplus through the use of the iron plough as a myth.
• He argued that there was no significant increase in the use of iron from PGW to NBPW levels.
• He says that iron technology was not an essential prerequisite for an agricultural surplus or urbanization, that the Bihar iron ores were not tapped during this period, and that the Ganga plains remained heavily forested till as late as the 16th and 17th centuries CE.
• Technology is certainly an extremely important factor in history, but it has to be considered along with other variables.
• Archaeological data indicates that the beginning of iron technology in parts of the Ganga valley can be traced to the 2nd millennium BCE.
• The earliest iron artefacts occur in BRW or PGW contexts.
• The use of iron and its impact increased gradually over the centuries and is reflected in the increase in the number and range of iron objects in the NBPW phase.
• While the expansion of agriculture must certainly have involved some amount of land clearance, large tracts of land continued to be forested.
• Massive deforestation in the Ganga valley and in the subcontinent in general is actually a feature of the colonial period, when the extension of the railways, increase in population, and the commercialization of agriculture led to a dramatic, unprecedented reduction in forest cover.
• In far south:
• In the far south, the early advent of iron was not followed swiftly by socioeconomic transformations.
• Rajan Gurukkal points out that iron ploughshares tended to be restricted to the wetland areas. He argues that notwithstanding the knowledge of iron technology, the larger sociopolitical context of war and plunder hindered the process of agrarian growth in Tamilakam.
• The simplistic technological determinism that marked the early phase of the iron debate is no longer tenable.

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