Science and Technology - 3 | Current Affairs & Hindu Analysis: Daily, Weekly & Monthly - UPSC PDF Download

Purification Processes of Water

Why in news?

In recent times, Reverse Osmosis (RO) has become increasingly popular due to its capability to remove impurities and pathogens from water while also lowering Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) levels. However, there are growing concerns regarding the loss of essential minerals like calcium and magnesium during this process.

What is the RO Water Purification Method?

• Definition: Reverse Osmosis (RO) is a method of water purification that filters out contaminants using a semi-permeable membrane.
• System Components: A typical RO setup includes a semi-permeable membrane that contains pores sized between 0.0001 and 0.001 microns.
• Process: Water is forced through the membrane under pressure, trapping contaminants such as dissolved salts, chemicals, microorganisms, and other impurities, allowing only water molecules to pass through.
• Effectiveness: RO effectively eliminates a variety of impurities, including salts, heavy metals, bacteria, viruses, and organic materials, ensuring clean and purified water.
• Applications: This technology is commonly utilized in both residential and industrial sectors to enhance water quality for drinking, cooking, and other uses.

Reasons for Growing Demand for RO Water:

• Poor Water Quality: Many regions, particularly rural areas, struggle with subpar groundwater or tap water quality. Problems like brackish taste, unpleasant odor, and contamination from pollutants such as chlorine and heavy metals prompt the search for cleaner drinking water alternatives.
• Perceived Health Benefits: Consumers often believe that RO water is healthier and safer than untreated or municipal water. Although scientific evidence supporting this belief is limited, the perception of improved health outcomes enhances its popularity.
• Convenience and Accessibility: RO water is easily accessible through purification plants and home RO systems. This convenience, combined with straightforward installation and maintenance, makes it a favored option for those desiring easy access to clean water.
• Increasing Urbanisation: Rapid urban growth and population increases create a higher demand for clean water, especially in urban areas facing groundwater contamination and municipal water quality issues. Consequently, the demand for RO systems rises to cater to urban residents.
• Technological Advancements: Ongoing improvements in RO technology have resulted in more efficient and affordable water purification systems, making RO water appealing to a broader consumer base.

What are the Concerns Related to the RO Process?

• Loss of Essential Minerals: While RO systems effectively remove harmful impurities and pathogens, they also eliminate beneficial minerals such as calcium and magnesium. This reduction can lead to micronutrient deficiencies, posing a public health threat, especially in areas already affected by such deficiencies.
• Extreme Low TDS Levels: Studies have shown that TDS levels can drop below 50 mg/l in many areas, indicating significant loss of essential minerals. In a nationwide study, TDS levels were between 25 and 30 mg/l, and RO water was found to have TDS levels as low as 18 to 25 mg/l. This "dead water" is considered suitable for non-consumptive uses, like battery operation, but not for drinking.
• Health Impacts: Research indicates that the removal of beneficial minerals by RO systems can lead to health issues such as joint pain, coronary heart disease, back pain, and vitamin B12 deficiency. The World Health Organization (WHO) has noted health problems, including cardiovascular disorders and muscle cramps, in populations using RO systems, highlighting the risk of acute magnesium deficiency.

What are the Other Methods of Purification of Water?

What are the Recommended TDS Limits for Safe Drinking Water?

• Standards by BIS: The Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) sets the maximum permissible TDS limit for safe drinking water at 500 milligrams per liter (ppm). In cases where no alternative water sources are available, a TDS limit of up to 2,000 mg/l is allowed.
• Recommended TDS Range: According to BIS's drinking water standards issued in 2017, TDS levels in drinking water should be maintained between 600 and 1,000 mg/l.
• International Standards: Countries in Europe, the US, and Canada establish TDS standards ranging from 500 to 600 mg/l.

What Technologies are Available to Address Mineral-Related Issues Within RO systems?

• Mineral Infusion Solutions: To tackle TDS-related concerns, manufacturers of RO systems have developed TDS controllers and mineral infusion cartridges. TDS controllers adjust the TDS levels in purified water, while mineral cartridges add essential minerals back into the water during purification.
• Alkaline Cartridges: Since reduced TDS can increase water acidity, newer RO systems often include alkaline cartridges, which introduce compounds like bicarbonates and hydrogen oxide to balance pH levels.

Way Forward

• Assessment of RO Necessity: The necessity of RO systems should be evaluated based on regional water quality. RO is only essential in areas where surface or groundwater is significantly contaminated.
• Alternative Purification Methods: In regions where surface water is safe for consumption, using a combination of candle filters, activated carbon, and UV filters may suffice for effective purification.
• Specific Contaminant Targeting: While RO systems are capable of removing toxins like arsenic and fluoride, they may not be the best option if these elements are the only concerns. In areas such as Jharkhand and Odisha, alternative methods should be considered to target specific contaminants effectively.
• Responsibility of Authorities: Once piped water reaches households, it becomes the duty of local authorities, such as municipal corporations or panchayats, to ensure that the water supplied adheres to BIS standards.

Refrigerants

Why in News?

A recent court case in San Diego, US, highlighted the smuggling of banned refrigerants from Mexico into the US, shedding light on the environmental repercussions of such illicit activities. The refrigerants in question are hydrofluorocarbons and a form of hydrochlorofluorocarbons, known as HCFC 22.

What are Refrigerants?

• A refrigerant is a chemical substance utilized in refrigeration and air conditioning systems.
• These substances function by absorbing heat and transferring it in a cycle to achieve cooling of air or objects.
• Refrigerants typically possess low boiling points, enabling them to evaporate and cool their environment at relatively low temperatures.
• Examples of refrigerants include chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), and hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs).

HFCs and HCFCs:

• In the 1990s, HFCs and HCFCs became popular replacements for CFCs in refrigeration and air conditioning systems.
• This change was prompted by research conducted in 1985 which confirmed that CFCs were depleting the ozone layer above Antarctica, contributing to the ozone hole phenomenon.
• Refrigerants like HFCs and HCFCs are primarily released into the atmosphere when appliances are improperly disposed of at the end of their lifecycle, significantly contributing to environmental pollution.

What Measures have been Taken Globally to Reduce the Usage of Refrigerants?

• The Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer was established in 1985, aiming to monitor and report on ozone depletion.
• In 1987, nearly 200 countries signed the Montreal Protocol, which sought to stop the production and usage of ozone-depleting substances like CFCs.
• India signed the Montreal Protocol in 1992, committing to phase out CFCs by 1996 and HCFCs by 2030, with HCFCs being a temporary alternative due to their lesser impact on the ozone layer.
• As a result, HFCs became the dominant refrigerant as they do not harm the ozone layer; however, they were later identified as potent greenhouse gases.
• The Climate and Clean Air Coalition (CCAC) noted that HFCs contribute significantly to global warming, despite having no ozone-depleting potential.
• In 2016, over 150 countries agreed to the Kigali Amendment to the Montreal Protocol, aiming to reduce HFC consumption by 80-85% by the late 2040s.
• India is also a signatory to the Kigali Amendment, which outlines a phasedown of HFC production and consumption starting in 2032, with cumulative reductions of 10% in 2032, 20% in 2037, 30% in 2042, and 85% in 2047.
• Successful implementation of the Kigali Amendment could potentially prevent more than 0.4°C of global warming by the year 2100.

Astronomical Grand Cycles

Why in News?

A recent study published in the journal Nature Communications has found evidence of erosion in the deep sea linking astronomical grand cycles with the orbits of Earth and Mars, and global warming or cooling.

Key Findings of the Study:

• Astronomical Grand Cycles: Geological sedimentary data from the deep sea has uncovered a 2.4-million-year cycle, termed "astronomical grand cycles," which is associated with the orbits of Earth and Mars.
• Impact on Global Temperatures: This cycle is believed to influence long-term trends in global warming and cooling, as evidenced by erosion patterns in deep-sea sediments.

Connection Between Mars' Orbit and Earth's Climate:

• The gravitational forces exerted by planets in our solar system affect each other's orbits, leading to variations in their orbital eccentricity, which influences the amount of solar radiation Earth receives.
• This interaction results in cyclical warming and cooling trends over a span of 2.4 million years.

Impact on Climate and Ocean Circulation:

• Enhanced deep-sea circulation driven by eddies during warmer periods may prevent ocean stagnation, even if the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) slows or stops.
• AMOC is crucial as it transports warm water from tropical regions north into the North Atlantic.
• Deep ocean eddies function at depths of 3,000 to 6,500 meters, where sunlight does not reach, and are essential for maintaining ocean circulation dynamics.
• These eddies contribute to seafloor erosion and create large sediment deposits known as contourites, which resemble snowdrifts.

Future Research Directions:

• The research team intends to collect more data to better understand the cycles driven by Earth-Mars interactions and their implications for Earth's climate changes over extensive periods.

Other Astronomical Influences on Earth's Climate:

• Sunspot Activity: Sunspots are dark, cooler areas on the sun's surface that vary in number over an approximately 11-year cycle. Increased sunspot activity is often linked to cooler and wetter weather patterns on Earth, while fewer sunspots may correspond to warmer and drier conditions. However, these correlations are not always statistically significant.
• Galactic Cosmic Rays: Some researchers propose that heightened cosmic ray activity from our galaxy could influence cloud formation, potentially resulting in cooling effects on Earth. The extent and mechanisms of this influence are subjects of ongoing investigation.
• Asteroid/Comet Impacts: While rare, significant impacts from asteroids or comets can release large amounts of dust and gases into the atmosphere, leading to temporary cooling periods. An example includes the Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction event, which is believed to have been partially triggered by an asteroid impact, resulting in drastic climate changes.

What is a Virtual Private Network?

Why in news?

Recently, a 21-year-old from Gujarat was arrested by the Mumbai police for allegedly sending five threatening emails to industrialists while disguising his IP address through a Virtual Private Network (VPN).

About Virtual Private Network:

A VPN, or Virtual Private Network, establishes a secure digital connection between your device and a remote server operated by a VPN service provider. This connection involves:

• Creating a point-to-point tunnel that encrypts personal data.
• Masking your IP address to enhance anonymity.
• Allowing users to bypass website restrictions and firewalls.

This results in a more private, secure, and protected online experience.

• Virtual: The connection is termed virtual as it does not involve any physical cables.
• Private: The data transferred through this connection is not visible to others, ensuring privacy.
• Networked: Multiple devices, including your computer and the VPN server, collaborate to maintain this established link.

Advantages of VPN:

• Secure Your Data: VPN connections encrypt your data, making it unreadable to anyone lacking the encryption key. This also conceals your browsing activities from prying eyes.
• Bypass Censorship and Surveillance: In some regions, access to specific sites may be restricted due to government censorship. VPNs allow users to spoof their location, enabling them to bypass firewalls and access blocked content.
• Prevent ISP and Third-Party Tracking: Internet Service Providers (ISPs) monitor your browsing history through your device's unique IP address. By connecting to a remote VPN server, your IP address is concealed, thus protecting your personal data from being tracked.

DURGA II Laser Weapon

Why in News?

Recently, the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) has requested USD 100 million from the Ministry of Defence to create a high-powered laser weapon called the Directionally Unrestricted Ray-Gun Array (DURGA) II. This lightweight directed energy weapon (DEW) operates at 100 kilowatts and is intended for use by the armed forces. It is designed to provide the Indian military with advanced technology capable of neutralising threats such as drones, missiles, and artillery shells.

What are Directed-Energy Weapons (DEWs)?

• Directed-Energy Weapons (DEWs) are systems that emit concentrated energy, typically in the form of lasers, microwaves, or particle beams, to incapacitate or destroy targets.
• Unlike traditional weapons that rely on physical impact, DEWs utilize directed energy to achieve their objectives.

Types:

• Laser Weapons: Utilize concentrated beams of coherent light to heat and damage targets. They can serve various functions including target destruction, missile defence, and disabling electronic equipment.
• Microwave Weapons: Emit electromagnetic radiation in the microwave range to disrupt or damage electronic systems like computers, sensors, or communication devices.
• Particle Beam Weapons: Accelerate charged or neutral particles to high speeds and direct them at targets, causing damage via kinetic energy transfer or ionisation effects.

Advantages:

• DEWs offer precision targeting and rapid engagement capabilities.
• They result in reduced collateral damage and could lead to lower costs per shot.
• DEWs are considered a potential solution to counter 'unstoppable' hypersonic missiles.
• They have applications in military defence, homeland security, space exploration, and law enforcement.
• These weapons transmit lethal force at the speed of light, unaffected by gravity or atmospheric drag, enhancing their accuracy.

Challenges:

• Limited Range: Many DEWs have a restricted operational range, with effectiveness diminishing as the distance to the target increases.
• High Cost: The development and production of DEWs can be costly, and their benefits may not always justify the investment.
• Countermeasures: DEWs can be less effective against targets using reflective materials that mitigate their impact.
• Environmental factors such as fog, rain, and dust can also affect their operational efficiency.
• Arms Race: The advancement of DEWs might instigate an arms race among nations, akin to the current nuclear arms race.

Significance for India:

• The integration of DEW technology in India's defence sector can dramatically alter modern warfare strategies.
• It will enable India to develop advanced platforms, weapons, sensors, and networks crucial for future combat scenarios.
• DEWs could serve as a deterrent against adversaries like China and Pakistan, enhancing India's defensive capabilities.

Other Countries with DEWs:

• Countries like Russia, France, Germany, the United Kingdom, Israel, and China are reportedly advancing in the development of DEWs or laser-directed energy weapons.
• The United States has previously accused Cuba of conducting sonic attacks, known as the Havana Syndrome.

Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD)

Why in News?

Recently, there has been a global rise in Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD), primarily comprising Ulcerative Colitis and Crohn’s Disease.

What is Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD)?

• IBD refers to a group of chronic inflammatory disorders that affect the gastrointestinal (GI) tract.

Two main types of IBD include:

Crohn's Disease:

• Affects any part of the digestive system, from the mouth to the anus.
• Characterized by patchy inflammation, with healthy tissue interspersed among inflamed areas.
• Typically involves deeper layers of the bowel wall, leading to significant complications.

Ulcerative Colitis:

• Confined to the inner lining (mucosa) of the large intestine (colon) and rectum.
• The inflammation is continuous and may affect the entire colon in severe cases.

Causes:

• The exact origins of IBD are still not fully understood.
• It is believed to stem from a complex interaction of:
  (a) Genetic predispositions
  (b) Immune system malfunctions
  (c) Environmental influences

Symptoms: Common indicators of IBD include:

• Abdominal discomfort and cramping
• Diarrhea, which may often be bloody
• An urgent need to defecate
• Weight loss and persistent fatigue

Treatment: While there is currently no cure for IBD, treatment focuses on:

• Symptom management
• Inducing remission through various methods, including:
  (a) Medications
  (b) Dietary changes
  (c) Surgical interventions

Challenges in India:

• The incidence of IBD in India has nearly doubled from 1990 to 2019.
• This increase highlights the urgent need for early detection to improve treatment success.
• Unique diagnostic challenges exist in India, particularly in differentiating between Crohn’s Disease and intestinal tuberculosis, due to overlapping clinical symptoms.
• Shifts towards a Westernized diet are noted as factors contributing to the growing rates of IBD in India.

Monkeypox (Mpox): Virus Disease Outbreak

Why in News?

Monkeypox, later renamed ‘Mpox’ by WHO, is a rare zoonotic viral disease caused by infection with the Mpox virus. The monkeypox virus belongs to the same family of viruses as the variola virus, the virus that causes smallpox.
Mpox symptoms are similar to smallpox symptoms but milder, and Mpox is rarely fatal. Mpox is not related to chickenpox. ACAM2000, MVA-BN, and JYNNEOS are some of the vaccines available for the Mpox.

Background of Monkeypox:

• Mpox was first identified in 1958 when there were two outbreaks of a disease similar to pox in monkey colonies used for research in Denmark.
• Even though it's called Monkeypox virus, the exact source of the disease is still not known.
• It is believed that African rodents and non-human primates (like monkeys) may carry the virus and can spread it to humans.
• The first case of Mpox in humans was found in a nine-month-old boy in the Democratic Republic of the Congo in 1970.
• Before the recent outbreak in 2022, Mpox was reported in several countries in central and west Africa.
• About the Monkeypox (MPX) virus:
• The Mpox virus has various unique features based on its structure and specifications.

Structure:

• The Monkeypox (MPX) virus has distinctive surface tubules and a dumbbell-shaped core component.
• It is an enveloped virus with a double‐stranded DNA genome that belongs to the Orthopoxvirus genus of the Poxviridae family.

Variants:

• The Mpox virus has two types: Clade I and Clade II.
• Clade I of the Mpox virus has a death rate of about 10%.
• The recent outbreaks happening from 2022 to 2023 are caused by Clade II, specifically Clade IIb.
• Infections from Clade IIb are not usually deadly.
• Over 99% of those infected with this version of the disease are expected to survive.
• However, individuals with very weak immune systems or young children may become seriously ill or could die.

Symptoms of the Monkeypox:

The symptoms that people face with Mpox are:

• Rash: It is a major symptom of Mpox as infected persons often get lesions and rashes. It may be located on hands, feet, chest, face, or mouth or near the genitals, including the penis, testicles, labia, vagina, and anus.
• Other Symptoms: There are other symptoms of Mpox that include Fever, Chills, Swollen lymph nodes, fatigue, Muscle aches and backache, Headache, and Respiratory symptoms (for example, sore throat, nasal congestion or cough).

Progression and Transmission of Monkeypox Virus:

• The disease Mpox is caused by the monkeypox virus (MPXV), which was first discovered in monkeys used for research.
• Mpox can spread in two main ways:
  (a) From one person to another.
  (b) From animals to humans.
•  The natural source or reservoir of this virus remains unknown.

Entry and Pathophysiology:

• Incubation period: The Mpox virus can enter the body through different ways, including the mouth, nose, or skin.
• The virus starts to multiply at these entry points and then spreads to nearby lymph nodes.
• Once it is in the bloodstream, the virus can spread to other organs in the body.
• This incubation period usually lasts between 7 to 14 days, with a maximum of 21 days. During this time, a person may feel healthy and show no symptoms.
• Symptom onset: After the incubation period, the virus causes a phase known as secondary viremia, which leads to 1 to 2 days of early symptoms known as prodromal symptoms. This is the time between incubation and the appearance of the main symptoms.
• Initial symptoms include a fever and swelling of the lymph nodes, followed by the development of skin lesions.
• At this stage, patients may be contagious.
• Lesions first appear in the oropharynx (the part of the throat at the back of the mouth) before showing up on the skin.
•  Serum antibodies can be detected when the lesions start to appear.

Transmission

Close or Intimate Contact: Mpox can be passed to anyone through close, personal, often skin-to-skin contact, including:

• Mpox rash and scabs from someone who has Mpox.
• Saliva and upper respiratory fluids (like snot and mucus).
• Areas around the anus, rectum, or vagina.

Touching Objects: Although less common, Mpox can spread by touching surfaces that have not been cleaned properly.

• Touching objects, fabrics, and surfaces.
• Items like clothing, bedding, towels, fetish gear, and sex toys.

Infected Animals: Some animals can carry Mpox and can spread it to people through close contact.

• This is more likely with wild animals, especially small mammals such as squirrels, rats, and mice found in areas where Mpox is common (like West and Central Africa).
• Pets may also become infected and transmit Mpox to humans through close contact.

Water in Pools and Hot Tubs: There is no clear link between Mpox and water in pools, hot tubs, or splash pads.

• The Mpox virus is killed in water at chlorine levels recommended for cleaning recreational water.
• Mpox and Pregnancy: The Mpox virus can be passed to the fetus during pregnancy or to a newborn through close contact during and after birth.

Monkeypox Treatment

The goal of treating Mpox is to take care of the rash, manage pain and prevent complications. Early and supportive care is important to help 

• Isolation: People who are infected with Mpox should be kept away from others and given care in a separate area.
• Prioritizing Vulnerable: It is advised that individuals at high risk, such as health workers and sex workers, should receive vaccines to help prevent getting Mpox during an outbreak.
• Medications: Access to several antiviral medications, like tecovirimat, should be ensured for those who are infected.

Monkeypox Vaccines:

The ACAM2000, MVA-BN, and JYNNEOS vaccines are the available vaccines for controlling the current outbreak.

• The vaccines should be given within 4 days of being in contact with someone who has Mpox, or up to 14 days if no symptoms appear.
• MVA-BN: This is a third-generation vaccine that is live, weakened, and does not replicate. It is based on the modified vaccinia Ankara.
• ACAM2000: This is a smallpox vaccine and is considered a second-generation vaccine that is also live and uses the vaccinia virus.
• JYNNEOS vaccine: Currently used for treating monkeypox, this vaccine was developed using the Modified Vaccinia Ankara (MVA).
• It was used in the 1970s during the smallpox eradication campaign in Germany, where it helped to immunize over 100,000 people.
• This vaccine is generally more preferred because it has fewer side effects compared to ACAM2000.

Current Trends of Monkeypox:

The World Health Organization had declared monkeypox a Public Health Emergency of International Concern (PHEIC) but later removed this designation in May 2023.

• 2022-2023 Outbreak: The ongoing global outbreak of Mpox is alarming because:
• There are approximately 91,328 cases of Mpox worldwide.
• In the USA, there have been 55 reported deaths out of 31,010 cases.
• Cases in India: India recorded its first case of monkeypox in July 2022. The patient had traveled from the UAE to Kerala.
• As of July 2023, there have been a total of 27 confirmed cases of monkeypox in India, with 12 cases in Kerala and 15 cases in Delhi.
• Most of these cases have been described as mild, and the treatment has primarily been supportive.
• Re-infection after vaccination: In June 2023, Israel found a case of monkeypox in a man who had been vaccinated against the virus. He contracted the virus after traveling from Portugal to Israel.
• Clade 9 Variant: In September 2023, the ICMR National Institute of Virology (ICMR-NIV) identified the Clade 9 variant of the varicella-zoster virus (VZV) in India for the first time.

India’s Strategy to Deal with Monkeypox:

The following are the initiatives taken by India to deal with monkeypox:

• Hospitals Identified: The Ministry of Health and Family Welfare (MOHFW) has suggested guidelines to address monkeypox at three main government hospitals in Delhi.
• Isolation Rooms: The government is working to make isolation rooms available in these specific hospitals. This initiative has been expanded to add 10 more rooms in three additional hospitals.
• Diagnosis: Previously, the National Institute of Virology (NIV) in Pune was the main facility for diagnosing monkeypox using the RT-PCR test, which is the same method used for COVID-19. Later, the ICMR allowed 15 more institutions to perform RT-PCR tests to confirm cases.
• Virus Lineage: According to the ICMR, all monkeypox virus (MPXV) strains found in India belong to the A2 lineage, which is part of clade 2b.
• Vaccines: The Smallpox vaccine is reported to offer about 85% protection against human Mpox. After smallpox was eliminated in India, vaccination stopped in 1980.

Kerala’s Strategy:

• The State government has instructed the creation of screening desks equipped with thermal scanners at all airports and ports to help identify potential spreaders of illness early.
• As a result, individuals who are suspected of being infected will be placed in quarantine.
• The health department has established new protocols for hospitals and healthcare workers, indicating that private hospitals will not send patients displaying symptoms of Mpox to government hospitals.
• Surveillance medical officers have been appointed in each of the 14 districts to monitor the situation.

Way Forward

The best practices followed by countries around the globe can provide a direction to take steps as part of India’s future strategy. The following are a few measures such as:

• Vaccines for the Vulnerable: In the UK, New York City, and Canada, vaccines are being offered by focusing on groups of people based on how vulnerable they are to the virus.
• Training: It is important to provide proper education and training for healthcare workers.
• Targeted Testing: We need to support vulnerable communities through focused testing and education, with a compassionate approach.
• Preventing Stigma: Public health strategies should be suitable and free from stigma, avoiding messages that might push the outbreak into hiding.
• Involvement of Communities: Communities should take part from the start in planning and implementing health measures.
• Precautionary Measure: The use of condoms is recommended to help prevent further spread of infections.

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