Science and Technology: August 2024 UPSC Current Affairs | Current Affairs & Hindu Analysis: Daily, Weekly & Monthly PDF Download

Astronauts Stuck in ISS

Why in news?

Sunita Williams and Barry "Butch" Wilmore are remaining aboard the International Space Station (ISS) until February 2025 because of technical difficulties with the Boeing Starliner spacecraft that transported them there in June 2024. NASA is currently addressing these issues, which have raised concerns regarding astronaut safety, the capacity of the ISS, and the potential effects of extended space travel on human health.

How did the Astronauts Get Stuck in

• Williams and Wilmore traveled to the ISS in June on Boeing's Starliner during its inaugural crewed mission.
• Despite encountering a helium leak before launch and additional leaks during transit, Starliner successfully reached the ISS, but unresolved problems persist.
• Regular deliveries of cargo spacecraft ensure that the ISS can provide essential supplies, enabling the crew to remain there for a prolonged period.

Earlier Instances of Longer Stays in Space

• Russian cosmonaut Valeri Polyakov holds the record for the longest space stay with 438 days aboard the Mir Space Station (which was deorbited in 2001) from 1994 to 1995.
• US astronaut Frank Rubio completed 371 days on the ISS from 2022 to 2023.

What is the Impact on the Human Body in

Bone Density Loss

• Extended exposure to microgravity can result in numerous health challenges for astronauts, including the potential loss of up to 1% of bone mass monthly due to the absence of gravitational force.
• This reduction in bone density can elevate the risk of developing osteoporosis and fractures.

Muscle Atrophy:

• In a microgravity environment, astronauts may experience significant decreases in muscle mass and strength, which necessitates daily rigorous exercise programs to counteract these effects.

Vision Problems:

• Changes in body fluid distribution can increase intracranial pressure, leading to vision-related issues known as Spaceflight Associated Neuro-ocular Syndrome (SANS).

Cardiovascular Changes:

• Microgravity can alter the shape and size of the heart, potentially resulting in various cardiovascular complications.

Psychological Effects:

• Extended periods of isolation and confinement can adversely affect mental health, causing stress, anxiety, and other psychological difficulties.

Sucralose: A Promising Sweetener for Diabetics

Why in News?

A recent study from India has highlighted the potential benefits of using sucralose, a non-nutritive sweetener, as a substitute for sucrose (table sugar) among individuals with Type 2 Diabetes. The study contrasts with the WHO’s recent caution against Non-Nutritive Sweeteners (NNS) for weight control in non-diabetics.

What were the Key Findings of the Study?

• The study found no notable changes in glucose or HbA1c levels, which is a key measure for monitoring blood glucose control, between the group using sucralose and the control group.
• Participants using sucralose experienced slight improvements in body weight, waist circumference, and Body Mass Index (BMI).
• Using sucralose wisely can help reduce overall calorie and sugar intake, which is vital for effective diabetes management.

Significance:

• These findings are particularly relevant for India, where the use of sweeteners is less common.
• The study indicates that sucralose could enhance dietary adherence and assist with weight management for diabetics in the country.

What are Sugar and Sugar Substitutes?

Sugar:

• Sugar is a carbohydrate, which, along with fiber and starch, plays a significant role in our diet. However, sugar is not an essential nutrient.
• Table sugar, known scientifically as sucrose, is the most prevalent sweetener.
• Other forms of natural sugars include fructose, galactose, glucose, lactose, and maltose.

Sugar Substitutes:

• Sugar substitutes provide sweetness without the calories associated with regular sugar, and some have no calories whatsoever.
• They are often found in products marketed as "sugar-free," "keto," "low carb," or "diet."

Types of Sugar Substitutes:

• Artificial Sweeteners: Also known as Non-Nutritive Sweeteners (NNS), these are primarily synthesized in laboratories or derived from natural herbs. They can be 200 to 700 times sweeter than table sugar. Examples include acesulfame potassium (Ace-K), Advantame, Aspartame, Neotame, Saccharin, and Sucralose.
• Sugar Alcohols: These are derived from sugars and are commonly used in many processed foods. They tend to be less sweet than artificial sweeteners and add texture and taste to products like chewing gum and hard candies. Examples are erythritol, isomalt, lactitol, maltitol, sorbitol, and xylitol.
• Novel Sweeteners: Sourced from natural origins, these sweeteners merge the advantages of both artificial and natural sweeteners, being low in calories and sugar, thus helping to prevent weight gain and blood sugar spikes. They are typically less processed and closely resemble their natural sources. Examples are allulose, monk fruit, stevia, and tagatose.

High Temperature Impacting Flight Operations

Why in News?

Recently, numerous airlines have canceled their flights to Leh due to extreme high temperatures in the area, which resulted in runway restrictions. The rise in temperatures is attributed to climate change affecting India's cold desert regions.

What is the Impact of High Temperatures on Aircraft Operation?

• Reduced Lift: Higher temperatures lead to less dense air, which decreases the lift generated by aircraft wings. This situation requires planes to achieve higher speeds and utilize longer runways for takeoff. The lift-to-drag ratio is negatively impacted, thus reducing overall aircraft efficiency.
• Engine Performance Deterioration: The combustion process in aircraft engines suffers due to lower oxygen availability in thinner air. This results in decreased engine thrust, making takeoff more challenging.
• Extended Landing Distances: Reduced reverse thrust effectiveness in less dense air increases the distance required for landing, necessitating longer runways for safe deceleration. A study from 2023 indicates that global warming could increase the take-off distance for a Boeing 737-800 by an average of 6% between 2071 and 2080, compared to 1991-2000. This is particularly critical for low-altitude airports, which may require an additional 113 to 222 meters for summer takeoffs in the future.
• Operational Constraints: Airports in high-altitude areas are especially susceptible to temperature-related flight restrictions. During extreme heat, airlines may have to impose weight limits for takeoff or even suspend flight operations entirely.

What is the Principle of Aircraft Flight Operation?

• All flying objects that utilize wings depend on air, as the movement of air generates a lifting force essential for maintaining flight in kites, airplanes, and balloons.

An aircraft is subjected to four fundamental forces:

• Lift: The upward force acting on the aircraft that enables it to fly.
• Drag: The backward force resulting from air resistance.
• Thrust: The forward force generated by the aircraft's engines.
• Weight: The total weight of the aircraft and its cargo, acting downward.
• An aircraft takes flight when the lift generated by its wings exceeds its weight. This requires sufficient forward speed to propel the aircraft, during which the airfoil-shaped wings interact with the air, creating lift due to a pressure difference between the upper and lower wing surfaces. The curved upper surface of the airfoil accelerates airflow, reducing pressure as per Bernoulli's principle. Meanwhile, the air beneath the wing is slightly compressed, increasing pressure and creating an upward force that lifts the aircraft.
• Angle of Attack: The angle between the wing and the oncoming air significantly affects lift. A slight increase in this angle can generate more lift, but excessive angles may result in a stall. To maintain level flight, the lift force must equal the aircraft's weight, which pilots manage by adjusting the wing's angle of attack and shape using control surfaces.

What are the Causes of High Temperature in Leh-Ladakh Region?

• Altitude: The high elevation of approximately 3,000 meters in Leh-Ladakh results in thinner atmospheric density. Additionally, the region's clear skies, minimal cloud cover, and sparse vegetation allow for greater solar radiation penetration, leading to higher daytime temperatures during summer.
• Topography: The Himalayas and Zanskar ranges create a rain shadow effect, blocking moisture-laden winds and resulting in minimal precipitation. This dry air leads to significant temperature fluctuations, causing elevated daytime temperatures.
• Climate Change: Global warming has raised temperatures worldwide, impacting cold desert regions. This phenomenon alters local weather patterns, potentially resulting in warmer conditions in Leh-Ladakh.
• Human Activities: Urbanization and infrastructure development in Leh and nearby areas contribute to localized warming effects, known as the urban heat island effect. These occur when cities replace natural landscapes with surfaces that absorb and retain heat, increasing energy costs, air pollution, and heat-related health issues. Moreover, heightened human activity, including tourism and military movements, exacerbates rising temperatures.

Mains Question

Q: What is Global warming and its implications on the aviation sector worldwide?

Ransomware Attack Disrupts Bank Operations

Why in news?

Recently, a ransomware attack significantly disrupted the operations of around 150-200 cooperative banks and Regional Rural Banks (RRBs) in India. The National Payments Corporation of India (NPCI) has pinpointed the attack as primarily affecting banks that rely on C-Edge Technologies Ltd., a joint venture of Tata Consultancy Services Ltd. (TCS) and the State Bank of India (SBI).

Impact of the Ransomware Attack on Banks

• The attack targeted C-Edge Technologies Ltd., hindering their service capabilities to cooperative banks and RRBs.
• Customers of the affected banks faced difficulties accessing payment systems like Unified Payments Interface (UPI) and Aadhaar-enabled payment systems (AePS).
• Some RRBs continued normal operations due to their use of different technology service providers.

Broader Implications for the Payment Ecosystem

• This incident reveals the vulnerability of technology service providers and their essential role in the payment infrastructure.
• It emphasizes the urgent need for robust cybersecurity measures to safeguard against future attacks.
• Collaboration among NPCI, banks, and technology providers is vital to effectively address and mitigate disruption impacts.

What is Ransomware?

• Definition: Ransomware is a form of malware that encrypts a victim's data or locks their device, demanding a ransom for access restoration.
• Early Attacks: Initially focused on encrypting data and requiring a ransom for decryption.
• Modern Tactics:Current ransomware attacks may involve double-extortion and triple-extortion strategies:
• Double-extortion: Attackers threaten to publish stolen data online if the ransom is not paid.
• Triple-extortion: Attackers use stolen data to target the victim’s customers or partners.

Types of Ransomware

• Encrypting Ransomware (Crypto Ransomware): Encrypts the victim's data, with ransom demanded for the decryption key.
• Non-encrypting Ransomware (Screen-locking Ransomware): Locks the victim's device and displays a ransom note on the screen.

Subcategories of Ransomware Include

• Leakware or Doxware: Steals and threatens to publish sensitive information.
• Mobile Ransomware: Targets mobile devices, often using screen-locking methods.
• Wipers: Threatens to erase data, sometimes regardless of ransom payment.
• Scareware: Uses fear tactics to induce payment, often posing as legitimate alerts.

Ransomware as a Cyber Threat

Financial Impact

• Ransomware attacks can result in massive financial losses for organizations.
• An IBM report indicated that the average cost of a data breach reached Rs 19.5 crore (USD 2.35 million) in FY 2024, marking a 7% increase from 2023, with the local industrial sector being the most affected.
• Victims and negotiators often hesitate to reveal ransom payments.

Speed of Attacks

• Hackers can deploy ransomware within four days once they gain network access, leaving organizations with little time to react.

Steps for Responding to a Ransomware Attack

• Isolate the infected device from the network to contain the spread.
• Identify the entry point by reviewing alerts from monitoring systems and scanning encrypted files and ransom notes.
• Prioritize system restoration, beginning with critical systems, then eradicate the threat from the network.
• If backups exist, restore systems from them; otherwise, explore decryption options.

How does Ransomware Infect Systems?

• Phishing: Utilizes social engineering tactics to trick victims into downloading ransomware via malicious links or attachments.
• Exploiting Vulnerabilities: Targets existing or zero-day vulnerabilities to inject ransomware.
• Credential Theft: Captures authorized user credentials to deploy ransomware.
• Other Malware: Uses other types of malware (e.g., Trojans) to spread ransomware.
• Drive-by Downloads: Infects devices through compromised websites.
• Ransomware as a Service (RaaS): Allows cybercriminals to use pre-developed ransomware in exchange for a share of the ransom.

What are the Legislations to Protect Against Ransomware Attacks in India?

• Ransomware attacks fall under various offenses outlined in the Indian Penal Code (IPC) of 1860 and the Information Technology (IT) Act of 2000.
• Relevant provisions of the IT Act include:
  • Section 43 and 66 (damage to computer/system)
  • Section 65 (tampering with computer source documents)
  • Section 66D (cheating by impersonation)
• Corporate entities handling sensitive personal data must implement reasonable security practices per the IT Rules.
• Penalties for ransomware attacks under the IT Act can include imprisonment from three to seven years, alongside fines of up to Rs. 1 crore.
• The Ransomware Task Force (RTF) is a specialized unit within India’s National Cyber Security Coordinator (NCSC), functioning as a central point of contact for ransomware victims, aiding in investigation, recovery, and prevention.
• The Cybersecurity Framework for the Indian Banking Sector, 2018, issued by the RBI, mandates robust cybersecurity measures for banks and financial institutions, including multi-factor authentication, encryption, and regular security audits.

Way Forward

Cybersecurity Enhancements:

• Financial institutions and technology service providers should adopt comprehensive cybersecurity measures such as endpoint protection, network security, data backup, and employee training.
• Improved threat detection and prevention methods have resulted in an 11.5% decrease in ransomware infections between 2022 and 2023.
• Establish a centralized platform to share threat intelligence among banks and financial institutions.

Data Backup and Recovery:

• Implement robust data backup and recovery strategies, including offline backups.
• Develop thorough business continuity plans to minimize disruption during cyberattacks.

Enhanced Security Standards:

• Conduct thorough security assessments of third-party vendors and partners.
• Strengthen incident response capabilities to reduce the impact of cyberattacks.
• Obtain relevant cybersecurity certifications to showcase commitment to security.

Mains Question:

Q: Analyze the effects of the ransomware attack on the banking ecosystem and what measures can organizations implement to mitigate these risks?

The Supreme Court’s Decision in Allowing GM Mustard

Why in news?

The Supreme Court, on July 23, 2024, issued a split verdict concerning the Centre's 2022 decision to grant conditional approval for the environmental release of genetically modified (GM) mustard crops.

About Genetically Modified (GM) Crops

• GM crops are plants whose genetic material has been altered using genetic engineering techniques to introduce desirable traits.
• These traits may include:
• Resistance to pests and diseases
• Improved nutritional content
• Increased yield
• Unlike traditional breeding, genetic modification allows for direct manipulation of a plant's genes, often incorporating genes from different species.

Benefits of GM Crops

• Increased Yield: GM crops can produce higher yields, thus enhancing food security.
• Pest and Disease Resistance: Crops can be engineered for resistance to specific pests and diseases, reducing reliance on chemical pesticides.
• Herbicide Tolerance: Some GM crops are designed to tolerate certain herbicides, improving weed control efficiency.
• Enhanced Nutritional Content: Crops can be modified to provide higher levels of essential nutrients, helping to address malnutrition in developing regions.
• Environmental Benefits: Reduced need for chemical inputs can lessen the environmental impact of agricultural practices.

Concerns / Controversies w.r.t. GM Crops

• Environmental Impact: There are debates regarding the potential effects of GM crops on non-target species and their impact on biodiversity.
• Health Concerns: While extensive studies indicate that GM foods are safe, public apprehensions about potential long-term health implications remain.
• Economic Issues: Patenting of GM seeds raises concerns about corporate control over the food supply and its economic effects on small-scale farmers.
• Ethical and Labeling Issues: Ethical debates exist over genetic manipulation, with many advocating for clear labeling of GM products to empower consumer choice.

Regulations w.r.t. GM Crops in India

• The adoption and regulation of GM crops differ across countries. Some nations widely cultivate and consume GM crops, whereas others impose strict regulations or outright bans.
• In India, the Ministry of Environment, Forest, and Climate Change (MoEFCC) oversees all activities related to genetically modified organisms.
• GMOs are regulated under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986, with the authority to review and approve all GMO-related activities, including import, export, transportation, manufacture, use, and sale.
• The Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee (GEAC) is a statutory body established under the Environment Act.
• GM foods must also adhere to regulations set by the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI).
• Currently, cotton is the only GM crop approved for commercial cultivation in India.
• In 2023, the GEAC approved the commercial cultivation of genetically modified mustard, known as Dhara Mustard Hybrid (DMH-11), developed by scientists at Delhi University.

News Summary

• The Supreme Court's split verdict addressed the Centre's 2022 decisions regarding the environmental release of the GM mustard hybrid DMH-11 for seed production and testing.
• The case was reviewed by Justices B V Nagarathna and Sanjay Karol.

Petitions:

• The court's decision was in response to petitions from activist Aruna Rodrigues and the NGO 'Gene Campaign,' who sought a moratorium on any GMO release until a comprehensive biosafety protocol is publicly available and conducted by independent experts.

Divergent Opinions

• Justice Nagarathna: Deemed the GEAC's October 2022 decisions invalid due to the absence of a health department member during the meeting.
• Justice Karol: Found no manifest arbitrariness in the GEAC decisions and supported proceeding with field trials under strict safeguards.
• Next Steps: The matter has been referred to Chief Justice of India D Y Chandrachud for further adjudication.
• National Policy on GM Crops: Both justices emphasized the necessity for a national policy on GM crops. They directed the Centre to engage all stakeholders and experts within four months to develop this policy.

Enhancing Content Authenticity with AI Watermarking Techniques

Why in News?

Recently, OpenAI, the creator of ChatGPT, has developed a tool designed to detect whether its AI chatbot has been utilized for writing essays, research papers, or generating images. To tackle issues surrounding content authenticity and ownership, major technology companies such as OpenAI, Meta, Microsoft, Google, and Adobe are working on implementing watermarking techniques.

What is Watermarking on AI Generated Content?

About:

• The AI watermarking technique is essential for distinguishing between AI-generated content and original works.
• This method acts as a digital signature, serving as a unique identifier similar to a fingerprint, which allows tracing the AI model that produced the content back to its source.

Need of Watermarking

• Authentication and Validation: Watermarking provides a dependable approach to verify the authenticity of digital files, which is vital for combating deepfake videos and manipulated images in today's digital landscape.
• Tamper-Evident Records: By integrating AI watermarking with blockchain technology and public key infrastructure, any attempts to alter or manipulate digital content can be detected, ensuring the integrity of digital records.
• Trust and Confidence: AI watermarking enhances the authenticity of media, thus helping content creators, distributors, and consumers combat misinformation and counterfeiting, thereby strengthening trust and understanding regarding the origin of content.

Steps to Ensure AI Authenticity

• Coalition for Content Provenance and Authenticity (C2PA): This is a partnership involving Adobe, Intel, Microsoft, Sony, and other key companies aimed at setting standards to verify the authenticity of audio-visual content.
• Use of Blockchain Technology: Blockchain technology promotes transparency by providing an immutable, publicly accessible record of the ownership and origin of digital assets.
• Ethereum Improvement Proposal: This initiative proposes the integration of C2PA consent data, including permissions for AI and Machine Learning data mining, into on-chain metadata, leveraging blockchain to improve security and transparency.

Axiom-4 Mission

Why in the news?

The Axiom-4 mission has gained attention as the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) has selected two of its four trained Gaganyaan astronauts to journey to the International Space Station (ISS). This mission represents a significant step in commercial spaceflight and international collaboration.

About Axiom-4 Mission

• Axiom Mission 4 (Ax-4) is a private spaceflight initiative aimed at reaching the International Space Station (ISS).
• The mission will be operated by Axiom Space using a SpaceX Crew Dragon spacecraft.
• It is scheduled for launch in 2024, following previous missions: Axiom Mission 1, 2, and 3.
• This mission is part of Axiom Space's ongoing efforts to establish a sustainable human presence in Low Earth Orbit (LEO).

Mission Objectives

• Axiom-4 aims to promote commercial activities in space such as scientific research and technological advancement.
• The mission will showcase the feasibility of commercial space stations for business and innovation.

Key Features

• The mission will feature a diverse crew of astronauts from various countries, highlighting the international interest in space exploration.
• This will enhance global partnerships and contribute to collaborative space initiatives.

About International Space Station (ISS)

• The ISS is a modular space station launched in 1998, allowing for the addition or removal of modules for flexibility.
• It serves as a large laboratory in space for astronauts to conduct experiments in a microgravity environment.
• The first crew arrived on the ISS on November 2, 2000, with objectives including research in astrobiology, astronomy, and meteorology.
• Orbiting the Earth at an altitude of 400 km, it completes an orbit approximately every 93 minutes.

Participating Space Agencies

• The ISS is a collaborative project involving five space agencies: NASA (USA), Roscosmos (Russia), JAXA (Japan), ESA (Europe), and CSA (Canada).
• The ISS is divided into two main sections: the Russian Orbital Segment (ROS) and the United States Orbital Segment (USOS).

News Summary

• Only one of the shortlisted Indian astronauts will participate in the Axiom-4 mission, expected to occur no earlier than October 2024.
• Prior to the mission, astronauts will undergo training in the United States to familiarize themselves with ISS operations.

Nano-MIND Technology

Why in news?

On July 31, 2024, researchers from the Korean Institute of Basic Science announced the development of a groundbreaking technology known as Nano Magnetogenetic Interface for NeuroDynamics (Nano-MIND). This technology has been tested on mice and opens new avenues for understanding and manipulating intricate brain functions including cognition, emotion, and motivation.

About Nano-MIND Technology

• Nano-MIND technology enables wireless and precise modulation of specific deep brain neural circuits through the use of magnetism.
• This innovative method utilizes magnetic fields along with magnetized nanoparticles to selectively activate targeted brain circuits, marking a significant improvement over traditional brain manipulation techniques.

Highlights of the research

• The research team demonstrated the technology's effectiveness by activating specific neurons in various brain regions of mice.
• One key achievement involved the activation of inhibitory GABA receptors in the medial preoptic area (MPOA), which plays a crucial role in maternal behaviors.
• When these neurons were stimulated in non-maternal female mice, they displayed a marked increase in nurturing behaviors, resembling those of maternal mice.
• The researchers also managed to regulate feeding behaviors by targeting motivation circuits in the lateral hypothalamus.
• Activation of inhibitory neurons in this region led to a remarkable 100% increase in appetite and feeding behaviors in mice. In contrast, stimulating excitatory neurons resulted in over a 50% reduction in appetite and feeding behaviors.

Significance

This technology signifies a major advancement in neuroscience research and may have extensive implications for the development of brain-computer interfaces (BCIs) and the treatment of neurological disorders.

Polaris Dawn Mission

Why in news?

The Polaris Dawn mission is set to transform commercial spaceflight by attempting a high-orbit mission and facilitating the first-ever private spacewalk conducted by non-professional astronauts.

Overview:

• The Polaris Dawn mission aims to redefine commercial space exploration with a pioneering high-orbit mission.
• This mission will mark the first instance of a private spacewalk involving non-professional astronauts.

About Polaris Dawn Mission:

• This mission is anticipated to be the first non-governmental endeavor to perform a spacewalk, reaching an impressive altitude of around 700 kilometers (435 miles) above Earth.
• This altitude exceeds that of the International Space Station (ISS), which is positioned at approximately 400 kilometers.
• SpaceX is responsible for providing the Falcon 9 rocket and Dragon capsule for this mission.
• The mission aims to surpass the altitude record established by NASA’s Gemini 11 mission in 1966, which achieved an altitude of 1,373 kilometers.

Crew and leadership:

• The mission is led by billionaire entrepreneur Jared Isaacman, who previously financed and participated in SpaceX's Inspiration4 mission, the first civilian mission to orbit Earth.

Understanding the Van Allen Belts:

• Composition: The Van Allen Belts are made up of charged particles that are captured by Earth's magnetosphere, which shields the planet from solar storms and cosmic radiation.
• These belts were first discovered in 1958 by American physicist James Van Allen.
• Location: The belts are categorized into two distinct types:
• Inner belt: This belt is located between 680 and 3,000 kilometers above the Earth's surface and primarily contains high-energy protons, formed through the interaction of cosmic rays with Earth's atmosphere.
• Outer belt: Found at altitudes of 15,000 to 20,000 kilometers above the Earth's surface, this belt mainly comprises high-energy electrons that originate from solar wind.
• Radiation risks: The spacewalk during the Polaris Dawn mission will expose the crew to higher radiation levels compared to those experienced on the ISS.
• The charged particles in these belts can result in radiation sickness, tissue damage, and an elevated risk of cancer.
• Data gathered during this mission will be essential for future deep-space missions, including NASA's planned missions to the Moon and Mars in 2025.

Significance of the Spacewalk:

• Van Allen belts: The mission will navigate through the Van Allen Belts, known for their intense radiation, which astronauts generally avoid. Mastery of these belts is important for upcoming missions to Mars.
• Testing new spacesuits: Four astronauts will wear and evaluate new spacesuits developed by SpaceX, designed to safeguard against the increased radiation in the Van Allen Belts.

Planned health research:

• Biological effects of space travel: Polaris Dawn intends to establish research biobanks to investigate how space travel affects human biology, particularly vision and brain structure.
• This research will focus on Spaceflight-Associated Neuro-ocular Syndrome (SANS), a significant health issue in space.
• Decompression sickness: The mission will also contribute to studies on decompression sickness (DCS), a condition arising from nitrogen gas bubbles that can damage human tissue during space travel.

Innovation in space communications:

• Laser communications test: The crew will assess laser communications provided by SpaceX’s Starlink satellite network.
• This technology is crucial for future missions to the Moon, Mars, and beyond, with data from these tests aiding the development of advanced space communication systems.

Polaris Missions ahead:

• Mission progression: Isaacman has planned three Polaris missions in collaboration with SpaceX.
• The first mission is scheduled to last five days, with future missions aimed at pushing the limits of human spaceflight, communications, and scientific research.
• Starship test: The third Polaris mission will involve the inaugural crewed test of a spacecraft.

Astra Missile

Why in news?

The Indian Air Force (IAF) has granted approval to the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) and Bharat Dynamics Limited (BDL) to manufacture 200 Astra air-to-air missiles for deployment on the Su-30 and LCA Tejas fighter aircraft.

Overview

• Astra is a beyond-visual-range (BVR) air-to-air missile.
• It has been indigenously developed and is manufactured by Bharat Dynamics Limited (BDL).
• The missile is designed to engage and eliminate aerial targets that exhibit high maneuverability and supersonic speeds.
• Astra enables advanced air combat capabilities, allowing it to target multiple high-performance threats.
• It is recognized as one of the best in its class worldwide among air-to-air missile systems.
• The missile is being developed in various versions to meet diverse operational requirements.

Features of ASTRA Mk-I

• Length: 3.6 meters and diameter: 178 mm, with a weight of 154 kg.
• Range: 80 to 110 km during head-on engagements.
• Speed: Capable of reaching up to 4.5 Mach (nearly hypersonic).
• Guidance System: Utilizes an inertial guidance system powered by a fiber optic gyroscope, complemented by terminal guidance through active radar homing.
• Launch Options: Pilots can choose between "Lock on Before Launch – LOBL" and "Lock on After Launch – LOAL," allowing safe maneuvering after missile deployment.
• Engine Technology: Based on advanced solid-fuel ducted ramjet (SFDR) technology.
• Operational Capability: Functions effectively in all weather conditions, both day and night, with high reliability and a very high Single Shot Kill Probability (SSKP).