Sexual Division of Labour | Sociology Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Introduction - Sexual Division of Labour

In many societies, the roles of women and men are distinctly separate. Traditionally, in Western and middle-class Indian communities, men were viewed as the primary income earners while women were expected to manage the household and raise children. This division of labor was often seen as 'natural' and based on the inherent biological differences between the sexes.

• The close relationship between women's economic dependence and the sexual division of labor has been questioned as women began to enter the workforce in large numbers, particularly in Western countries. The emergence of the feminist movement led to a reevaluation of the division of labor and the widespread subordination of women across various cultures and societies.
• Some of the questions raised include whether employment has improved women's status, and if they now face the double burden of being responsible for both household tasks and paid work outside the home. It has been noted that housework is often undervalued and not considered 'work' in the same way as paid employment. Additionally, statistics indicate that women globally earn significantly less than men for the same jobs, and that occupations are typically segregated by gender.
• Other concerns include women's active participation in the workforce, the consistent devaluation of their contributions, and their exclusion from decision-making roles. To better understand these issues, we can look to stratification theories for answers.

Division of Labour

The concept of gender stratification is deeply rooted in cultural values and reinforced by ideologies that promote male superiority and foster conflict between men and women. Meigs (1990) highlights a "chauvinistic" ideology originating from men's roles as warriors. This is evident in the Mundurucu, an Amazonian horticultural society, where men are responsible for hunting, fishing, and clearing land for gardens, while women take care of planting, harvesting, and processing manioc. In this society, men's work is assigned more value.

• As Murphy and Murphy (1985) argue, male dominance is not solely based on masculine activities, but rather it is a pre-existing condition. The symbolic nature of male domination is prominent in traditional societies. Martin and Voortries (1975) suggest that female participation in agriculture declines when root crops are replaced by cereal crops and when animal labor takes over manual labor.
• Feminist scholars argue against the notion that the oppression of women is merely a byproduct of contemporary economic exploitation. They claim that women's oppression should not be considered secondary to class oppression. Women are oppressed as a class by men, and patriarchal structures are widespread across geography and history. They assert that the primary differentiation in society is not class, but gender, and women are still waiting for the "longest revolution."
• Gender plays a crucial role in class stratification theories, as it seeks to uncover the causes of structured inequality and social change. Both Marxist and Weberian scholars have conducted empirical research to document and explain the forms and structures of inequality. However, these theories have often been criticized for deriving the class situation of family members from the main breadwinner, who is typically a man. The issue of gender inequality raises significant challenges for both theoretical and empirical work in social stratification.
• As women become more active in all aspects of life, the number of households with only male breadwinners decreases, and new laws are enacted, the environment for women's location in social stratification changes. According to Newby (1982), the issue of gender inequality emerged from the women's movement.

Weber and Marx on Social Stratification: Class, Gender Inequality, and Patriarchy in Stratification Theory

• Weber observed that societies can be divided based on their levels of class or status formation, which is the fundamental concept in social stratification theory. Social stratification theories primarily focus on examining the variability of class or status formations within and between societies.
• In the past, the issue of gender inequality was addressed in terms of the division of labor, using the Marxist approach that considered women as a "reserve army" whose labor could be called upon during periods of expansion or labor shortages, such as in wartime. According to Max Weber, economic and technological changes promote class stratification and push status stratification into the background.
• The focus on inequality of opportunities and outcomes in social stratification analysis was justified for several reasons. Firstly, there was interest in the distribution of unequal rewards and life-chances, and how different social arrangements could produce better outcomes and opportunities. Secondly, the explanation of the outcomes of class or status differentiation was considered a by-product of stratification analysis.

• Traditional approaches to social stratification did not pay much attention to gender inequality, as the focus was mainly on class polarization and status-group consolidation. It was often assumed that gender relations are predominantly heterosexual and therefore intersect with class and status relations, leading to the belief that gender relations are similar to ethnic relations.
• The concept of patriarchy, which represents a type of social formation that has been overlooked by conventional stratification analysis, has influenced various aspects of stratification theory. Mann (1986) argued that the exclusion of gender as a basis for social stratification led to a crisis in stratification theory. The five main areas of stratification theory that have been influenced by gender include the individual, the family and household, the division of labor between the sexes, social class, and nation-states.

Gender and Social Stratification in Cross- Cultural Perspective

In cross-cultural perspectives, the unequal access to resources, opportunities, and rights between men and women is legitimized by patriarchy across societies and cultures. This status inequality is reinforced through patriarchal institutions, gendered division of labor, and social institutions such as marriage, dowry, property, and inheritance. Sylvia Walby notes that patriarchy not only involves the differential distribution of power but is also embedded in the mechanism of production.

Women are dismissed as failures in the popular children’s comic Archie

• Feminist sociologists have challenged the concept of class being solely based on men's occupations and have sought to consider the implications of including women in paid work. Additionally, they have aimed to reevaluate the contribution of women's work to the family.
• Cross-cultural research on the sexual division of labor has not only described the wide range of women's productive activities in societies with different subsistence modes but also the status implications of these activities on women's status.
• Feminist anthropologists have been primarily concerned with exploring the causes of universal gender inequality and explaining its origins and perpetuation in sociological, cultural, and material terms. These explanations are based on major dichotomies such as public/domestic, nature/culture, and production/reproduction.
• In feminist anthropology, the relationship between gender and social stratification is conceptualized in terms of how gender informs social structures as a symbolic construct and metaphor for social action. Gender is viewed as symbolic representations and the behavior of women and men in their relations. Anthropologists like Rosaldo, Lamphere, and Ortner have identified gender and kinship as the basis of social inequality, recognizing how women's access to property and decision-making are subsumed within larger ideological, material, and political contexts of kinship structures.
• Ortner and Whitehead proposed a model of prestige structures, which includes gender as one such prestige structure. They argued that male prestige is linked to 'public roles,' while female prestige is defined in relation to men, in roles such as wife, sister, and mother. In other words, female structures are encompassed within male structures. This conceptualization of gender as a prestige structure has led to a gendered analysis of social stratification across societies.
• Anthropological literature suggests that women's work outside the household and in the subsistence economy indicates and reinforces generally egalitarian relations between women and men. For example, women in Vanatinai have access to power through their control of land and the accumulation of symbolic capital in exchange and mortuary rituals. However, among horticulturists in highland New Guinea, women raise staple crops, but men raise prestige crops that are the focus of social exchange.

Marx and Patriarchy

The concept of patriarchy and its relation to Marxism has been a subject of debate within social and political spheres. Marxist thought has contributed to the understanding of sexual division in terms of female labor's role within class structures and its functions for capital. However, there has been difficulty in forming a stable and coherent theory that connects objective class position and system contradictions to class formation.

• Patriarchy, on the other hand, refers to the patterns of behavior and social interaction where men are systematically privileged, and women are disadvantaged across various social contexts. This concept of gender relations as a form of stratification is different from the Marxist perspective. Additionally, the two approaches also disagree on whether women constitute a class or not.
• In patriarchal societies, women's value is often defined by their reproductive capabilities rather than their productive activities. This can be seen in practices such as bride wealth and dowry, which serve to compensate the bride's family for her reproductive and productive rights or to provide her with resources in attracting a husband.
• A classic example of a traditional patriarchal society is the Irish family studied by Arensberg and Kimball. In this setting, work was divided based on gender and age, with power residing in the hands of men. This division of labor was considered "natural" in the given context. Similarly, pastoral societies are often characterized by patriarchy and a dichotomy between the sexes, both symbolically and socially. Segregation of the sexes and gender stratification are common attributes in these societies.
• Campbell's study of the Sarakatsani of Greece illustrates how gender ideology is embedded within the three most valued aspects of their lives: sheep, children, and honor. Despite the equal contributions of women in all aspects of life, the ultimate authority remains with the male.

Status of Women

The status of women in society is often generalized according to different modes of adaptation, but studies show that there is a great amount of diversity that persists. To understand gender stratification, it is important to consider the complex interconnection of ideology and participation in production. As Atkinson (1982) states, it is too simplistic to deny the significance of sexual stereotypes or presume that women's influence in one context cancels out their degradation in another. The status of women is not a uniform phenomenon across cultures, and it is important to recognize that the intra-cultural picture is also complex.

• Socialist feminist scholars argue that patriarchy predates class inequality, and that new forms of subordination and gender asymmetry have replaced the old ones, leaving patriarchal control undisturbed. In industrial work, men have been privileged, taking control over earnings and social power, while women have been left as dependents.
• Leela Dube, Eleanor Leacock, and Shirley Ardener provide a cross-cultural perspective on the insignificance and passivity of women and the primacy of men in various societies. Leela Dube argues that making women invisible despite their obvious presence and effective visibility is the root cause of their low status in society.
• Gender inequalities can be explained by "gender regimes," which are clusters of practices, both ideological and material, that construct various images of masculinity and femininity, and thereby consolidate forms of gender inequality (Connell, 1994: 29-40). According to Kabeer (1995), 'biology is gendered as well as sexed,' with male and female being translated as man and woman based on mutually exclusive traits of masculinity and femininity.
• Women are subjected to a two-fold stratification: in relation to men and in relation to other women. Gender structures different spheres of male-female inequality.
• Many contemporary near-egalitarian societies are characterized by a division of labor where men hunt and women gather. Friedl (1975) outlines four reasons for this division: the variability in the supply of game, the different skills required for hunting and gathering, the incompatibility between carrying burdens and hunting, and the small size of semi-nomadic foraging populations. However, there is no sharp division of labor, as seen in the Tiwi, Australian aborigines who live on Melville Island off the coast of Northern Australia, where both men and women hunt and gather.
• In horticultural societies, women play important roles in production, as cultivation and farming are required by the use of hand-tool technology. Lepowsky points to gender egalitarianism among the horticultural and matrilineal people of the Pacific island of Vanatinai, where women hold prominent positions in exchange and other activities.

The Indian Context

In the Indian context, the family serves as a crucial unit for analysis in studies related to stratification, whether based on class or caste. However, it is essential to examine other aspects such as kinship, family dynamics, the role of the male head, and gender equality in Indian society. Patriarchy, economy, and class structure deeply influence the compartmentalization of women, even as they increasingly participate in politics, development programs, and feminist movements. Indian society is often divided into purushjati (men) and stree jati (women), which has a significant impact on women's status.

• To study and understand women in Indian society, researchers like Nita Kumar suggest four approaches: viewing women as objects of human 'gaze,' considering women as active subjects, focusing on patriarchal ideologies that control them, and examining the hidden ways women exercise their agency. This involves questioning the desirability of having women as subjects and the possibility of replacing masculine subjects with feminine ones.
• Various studies have highlighted the difficult lives of women in Indian villages due to work overload, poor health, drudgery, and poverty. Additionally, violence against women, work-related inequalities, access to education and employment, healthcare, social recognition of housewives' work, political repression, and underrepresentation are issues that women's movements in India address.
• Feminist writings in India have raised issues of exploitation and oppression in various spheres of life, including family, marriage, economy, religion, and politics. Such writings acknowledge the close interrelation between patriarchy, stratification systems, and women's status. Any positive change in women's status would challenge patriarchy and the stratification system, as seen through symbolic analysis and cultural valuations of masculinity and femininity.
• Despite the conservative portrayal of women in literary writings, recent decades have seen a surge in writings that challenge gender inequality, the invisibility of women in the economy, denial of employment opportunities, and violence against women as male privileges.
• The abolition of landlordism and its socio-cultural impacts have positively affected women in India. Studies have found that female income is essential for households living below the poverty line. However, women are still often engaged in low-status occupations, receive lower salaries than men, and face unemployment despite being highly educated and professionally trained.

Conclusion

The sexual division of labor and gender stratification have deep roots in cultural values, ideologies, and social structures across various societies. The emergence of feminist movements and women's increasing participation in the workforce have prompted a reevaluation of traditional gender roles and the subordination of women. Cross-cultural perspectives reveal the complexities of women's status and the impact of patriarchy, economy, and class structure on gender inequalities. Although progress has been made in challenging gender inequality and promoting women's rights, there is still much work to be done to ensure equal opportunities and fair treatment for both sexes in all aspects of life.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) of Sexual Division of Labour

How does the sexual division of labor affect women's status in society?

The sexual division of labor often results in women being assigned lower-value tasks and being economically dependent on men. This can lead to the widespread subordination of women across various cultures and societies.

What is the relationship between gender and social stratification?

Gender plays a crucial role in class stratification theories, as it seeks to uncover the causes of structured inequality and social change. By examining the relationship between gender and social stratification, researchers can better understand the origins and perpetuation of gender inequality in sociological, cultural, and material terms.

How has the feminist movement influenced the study of social stratification?

The feminist movement has led to a reevaluation of the division of labor and the widespread subordination of women. This has resulted in a greater focus on gender in social stratification theories, as well as the examination of how gender intersects with class and status relations.

What are some of the key issues that women's movements in India address?

Women's movements in India address issues such as violence against women, work-related inequalities, access to education and employment, healthcare, social recognition of housewives' work, political repression, and underrepresentation.

How can the status of women be improved in patriarchal societies?

Improving the status of women in patriarchal societies involves challenging existing gender norms and ideologies, promoting equal access to resources, opportunities, and rights, and fostering greater participation of women in various aspects of life, including education, employment, and decision-making roles.