Social Background of Indian Nationalism | Sociology Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Impact of British Rule on Indian Society and Economy in the Late 18th Century

• The establishment of British rule in the late 18th century led British officials, missionaries, and scholars to study India's classical languages, societal structure, and the values and behaviors of its people.
• During this period, India's economic base was mainly agricultural, with little change in tools and implements over time. Arts and crafts were linked to underdeveloped production methods. Socially, India was organized into relatively self-sufficient village communities, often grouped together in clusters of neighboring villages.

Caste System

• The caste system was a fundamental institution in India, accommodating various socio-economic groups and emerging classes. It bound people into groups and offered occupational protection.

British Innovations and Exploitation

• The British introduced railways, the press, and the Western education system, along with clubs and associations. These changes disrupted the existing socio-economic order.
• However, the exploitation that accompanied these developments stifled the potential for industrial growth and a modern economic system in India.
• The British systematically dismantled India's native industries to benefit British industries and their market in India. Although their aim was to keep the Indian population in a state of colonial backwardness, British rule inadvertently unleashed new historical forces within India by destabilizing the traditional economic system and socio-cultural order.

Emergence of New Aspirations

• This period sparked a desire for material progress and improved living conditions among individuals.
• It also fostered a spirit of inquiry among Indian intellectuals exposed to Western education.
• Both social reformers and conservatives began to critically reevaluate their society and culture in response to Western interpretations.

What is Nationalism?

• Nationalism is the feeling of being connected to and identifying with one's nation. Liah Greenfeld describes it as a vision of society where people are seen as equals and have the power to govern themselves.
• Originally, the term nationalism referred to small elite groups, but now it can apply to very large groups, even entire empires.
• Nationalism is not the same everywhere; it develops differently in different countries based on their unique histories and circumstances.

Historical Aspect of Nationalism

• Like many social ideas, nationalism is rooted in history. It appeared at a specific point in the evolution of societies when certain historical and social conditions were ripe.
• E.H. Carr pointed out that the modern concept of "nations" only emerged towards the end of the Middle Ages.
• Before the rise of national communities, societies went through various phases like tribal, slave, and feudal systems. Over time, due to social, economic, and cultural changes, nations emerged.
• These new nations were marked by strong connections among their members, a shared territory and economy, a common language, and a unified culture.
• However, no nation perfectly embodies all these traits. Elements from the past still linger in their economies, social structures, and cultures. Since the 17th century, various national communities have started to form, each at different stages of development.

How Did Indian Nationalism Develop?

• Indian nationalism is a modern idea that developed during British rule in India. It emerged from a mix of social, economic, and political factors both within India and influenced by global forces.
• The growth of Indian nationalism was complicated due to India's unique pre-British social structure. Hinduism was not a single religion but a mix of various cults, leading to deep social divisions. These divisions made the rise of nationalism in India different from other countries.
• Unlike other nations where nationalism grew amidst more uniform traditions, India faced strong historical traditions that resisted change. Moreover, Indian nationalism arose while the country was under British colonial rule.
• The British drastically altered India's economic structure for their benefit. They established a centralized government, introduced modern education, and improved communication. These changes led to the rise of new social classes and forces that eventually clashed with British rule and fueled Indian nationalism.

Different Views on Indian Nationalism

• There are various interpretations of Indian nationalism by both Indian and foreign scholars. Many historians and sociologists view nationalism as a response to British colonialism and the distortions it caused in Indian society.
• These distortions are seen in the class nature of nationalist leaders and their policies. Some argue that these colonial impacts led to communalism, the partition of India, and ongoing communal politics even after independence.
• Despite its disruptive nature, colonial rule also sparked social and economic forces that contributed to the rise of nationalism and the national movement in India. This perspective tends to focus on broad historical processes rather than the connection between social structure and cultural ideology.
• Some historians criticize the macro-analysis of Indian nationalism for being elitist, either from a liberal or Marxist standpoint. They argue that this view, shaped by British rule, overlooks the linkages in the study of nationalism and national movement in India.
• According to these critics, Indian nationalism suffered from a divide between mass mobilization based on kinship, caste, class, and territory, and the elite nationalist leadership's vertical mobilization.
• The mass movement was spontaneous and focused on social resistance against exploitation, while elite leadership selectively used these subaltern movements without uniting them into a cohesive front.
• Nationalism is seen as an ongoing process shaped by historical social forces, not a finished product or a set model. It is a dynamic process through which societies strengthen themselves by differentiating and integrating within their territorial boundaries.

Factors that Shaped the Background of Indian Nationalism

• According to K.M. Pannikkar, one of the most significant achievements of British rule was the unification of India. This unification was achieved unintentionally by the British, who aimed to spread and consolidate their rule across the country. The British efforts in spreading Western education, improving means of transport and communication, introducing new technology, and establishing a judicial system also contributed to this unification.
• Y. Singh points out that the interaction between Indian (Hindu) tradition and Western culture had profound sociological implications. This interaction was between a pre-modern society and a modernizing cultural system. The Western tradition, with its scientific and technological worldview rooted in rationalism, equality, and freedom, challenged the Indian tradition. As a result, the Indian tradition, already undergoing a transformation, became more open, liberal, egalitarian, and humanistic. The Western influence significantly impacted the Indian social structure by challenging hierarchical norms based on caste and the holistic interdependence among caste groups.

M.N. Srinivas describes westernization as the changes in Indian society brought about by British rule, affecting areas such as technology, dress, food, and lifestyle habits. Westernization occurs at three levels:

• Primary Level: A minority of individuals who were the first to encounter and benefit from Western culture.
• Secondary Level: Sections of Indian society that came into direct contact with the primary beneficiaries of Western culture.
• Tertiary Level: Those who learned about the changes introduced by the British indirectly.

However, the spread of westernization has been uneven and unequal across different sections of Indian society. While Srinivas acknowledges humanitarianism and egalitarianism as positive aspects of westernization, others view it as a process of cultural and cognitive colonialism, promoting a model of an "impersonal non-cultural and non-sovereign state."

Social Background of the Indian National Movement

Indian Nationalism and its Chief Phases

• Indian nationalism evolved within a unique social context and underwent various phases of development.
• As it progressed, its social foundation broadened, objectives became clearer, and forms of expression diversified.
• Influences from both Indian and global developments spurred a growing national consciousness among diverse strata of Indian society, drawing them into the nationalist movement.
• This national awakening manifested across various spheres of life, including social, political, and cultural domains.
• New classes began to organize on a national scale, driven by the new economic structure and common state regime.

First Phase

• In its initial phase, Indian nationalism had a narrow social base, primarily comprising the modern educated intelligentsia.
• Educated in British-established institutions, this group absorbed western democratic and nationalist ideas, becoming the first to develop a national consciousness.
• Pioneers like Raja Ram Mohan Roy and his contemporaries advocated for the concept of the Indian nation, initiating social and religious reform movements aimed at reshaping Indian society along democratic and rational lines.
• These early nationalists championed democratic rights, such as press freedom, and demanded a voice in the administration of the country.

Second Phase

• The second phase, spanning from 1885 to 1905, witnessed the rise of the Indian National Congress.
• Led by the Liberal intelligentsia, this phase expanded the social base of the movement to include the educated middle class and a section of the merchant class.
• Modern industries and the emerging class of industrialists also began to align with the Congress, which advocated for industrialization and organized the Swadeshi campaign in 1905.
• The Indian National Congress, under Liberal leadership, voiced the demands of the educated classes and trading bourgeoisie, such as Indianization of services and representative institutions.
• Methods of struggle were largely constitutional, appealing to British democratic traditions.
• Discontent with British responses led to the rise of the Extremists, who advocated for more direct action and self-government.
• Prominent figures like Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Aurobindo Ghose emerged during this time, advocating for a more assertive nationalist approach.

Third Phase

• From 1905 to 1918, the Extremists supplanted the Liberals as the dominant force in the nationalist movement.
• This phase saw a shift towards militant nationalism, emphasizing self-reliance and national self-respect.
• Despite government repression, the movement expanded to include lower-middle-class sections, driven by the agitation for Home Rule.
• The Indian National Congress became more inclusive, although its leaders attempted to base the movement on resurrected Hindu philosophy, which limited its appeal to all communities.

Fourth Phase

• Starting from 1918, the nationalist movement gained mass support and adopted direct mass action.
• Factors like the post-war economic crisis, disillusionment with government promises, and international democratic revolutions stirred political consciousness among the masses.
• The Indian industrial bourgeoisie gained influence, and socialist and communist groups began to emerge, advocating for class struggle and socialist objectives.
• Gandhi’s leadership marked a new phase, with his emphasis on class harmony and support for nationalist movements.
• Congress shifted its goal from Swaraj to Independence, with increased participation from the working class and peasantry.

Fifth Phase

• From 1934 to 1939, new developments emerged within the Congress and the nationalist movement.
• The Congress Socialist Party, breaking away from Gandhi's ideology, aimed to organize workers and peasants along class lines.
• Movements of the depressed classes gained momentum, and the Communist Party expanded its influence among various social groups.
• Peasant movements began to develop national and class consciousness, leading to independent class organizations and demands.
• The All India Kisan Sabha aimed for a socialist state of India, while the democratic struggles in Indian states and the awakening of various nationalities also gained prominence.
• Despite these developments, the Congress remained largely influenced by Gandhi's philosophy and the upper classes, although it began to incorporate fundamental rights and civil liberties into its program.