Social Empowerment - 1 | Indian Society for UPSC CSE PDF Download

Introduction

• Social empowerment means all sections of the society having equal control over their lives and the opportunity to take important decisions. A nation can never have a good growth trajectory without empowering all sections of society equally.
• It is understood as the process of developing a sense of autonomy and self-confidence, and acting individually and collectively to change social relationships and the institutions and discourses that exclude poor people and keep them in poverty.
• Perceptions of being empowered vary across time, culture, and domains of a person’s life:
  • A low-caste person feels empowered when he/she is given a fair hearing in a public meeting, which is comprised of men and women from the different social and economic group.
  • A woman from a conservative household feels empowered if she’s allowed to go out alone without being escorted by a male from her house.
  • A transgender feels empowered when she’s given employment.

The need for Social Empowerment

• Social empowerment leads one to take the right job and hence reduce the incidence of unemployment and under-employment.
• Social empowerment leads to a decrease in social violence engineered against the deprived section of the society. If one is empowered socially, they know the rights they enjoy and the duties they serve.
• Social empowerment is also advantageous in case of corruption as people tend to understand the exploitive class and restrain from giving any bribe which ultimately reduces corruption.
• Social empowerment is one approach to reduce poverty. When people are empowered, they tend to use the knowledge in the right direction and somehow reduce their poverty which is so important for national growth also.
• The main advantage of empowerment is that their will be an overall and inclusive development of the society. The money that people earn does not only help them and or their family, but it also helps develop the society.

Socially Disadvantaged Groups

• Scheduled Tribes
• Womens
• Scheduled Castes
• Minorities
• Rural Population
• Senior Citizens
• Persons with Disabilities

1. Scheduled Tribes

• The Scheduled Tribes are notified in 30 States/UTs and the number of individual ethnic groups etc. notified as Scheduled Tribes is about 705.
• The tribal population of the country, as per the 2011 census is constituting 8.6% of the total population (43 crores). However, 89.97% of them live in rural areas and 10.03% in urban areas. Of these, 1.57 per cent (about 1.32 million) belong to Primitive Tribal Groups (PTGs).
• The Scheduled Tribe (ST) population represents a heterogeneous group scattered in different regions of India. The differences are noticed in language, cultural practices, socioeconomic status, and pattern of livelihood.
• More than two-thirds of the ST population is concentrated only in the seven states of the country, viz. Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Jharkhand, and Chhattisgarh. There is no ST population in 3 States (Delhi NCR, Punjab and Haryana) and 2 UTs (Puducherry and Chandigarh), as no Scheduled Tribe is notified.
• Lack of basic amenities- The 2011 census data shows that access to tap water, sanitation facilities, drainage facilities, and clean cooking fuel is much lower among the tribal population.

The essential characteristics of Tribal communities are:

• Primitive Traits
• Geographical isolation
• Distinct culture
• Socio-Economically backward
• Shy of contact with the community at large
• The practice of endogamy happens within the tribe and can serve as a form of Self-segregation, and the community uses it to resist integrating and completely merging with surrounding populations.
• Tribal communities live in various ecological and geo-climatic conditions ranging from plains and forests to hills and inaccessible areas.
• Tribal groups are at different stages of social, economic, and educational development. While some tribal communities have adopted a mainstream way of life, at the other end of the spectrum, there are certain Scheduled Tribes, 75 categorized by Ministry of Home Affairs as Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTG)s. PVTGs reside in 18 States and UT of A&N Islands.
• In 1973, the Dhebar Commission created Primitive Tribal Groups (PTGs) as a separate category, who are less developed among the tribal groups. In 2006, the Government renamed the PTGs as PVTGs.
• Among the 75 listed PVTG’s the highest number are found in Odisha.
• PVTG is not a Constitutional category, nor are these constitutionally recognized
• The Saharia people of Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan are the largest among the PVTGs with the population more than 4 lakhs.

PVTGs are characterized by:

• Pre-agriculture level of technology
• Mostly homogenous
• Stagnant or declining population
• relatively physically isolated
• Extremely low literacy
• Slower rate of change
• Subsistence level of economy

Notable PVTGs in India –

• Kerala – Cholanaikayan (a section of Kattunaickans), Kadar, Kattunayakan, Kurumbas, Koraga, Irulas
• Bihar and Jharkhand – Asurs, Birhor, Birjia, Hill Kharia, Konvas, Mal Paharia, Parhaiyas, Sauda Paharia, Savar.
• Andhra Pradesh and Telangana – Bodo Gadaba, Bondo Poroja, Chenchu, Dongria Khond, Gutob Gadaba, Khond Poroja, Kolam, Kondareddis, Konda Savaras, Kutia Khond, Parengi Poroja, Thoti.
• Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh à Abujh Macias, Baigas, Bharias, Hill Korbas, Kamars Saharias, Birhor.
• Maharashtra –  Katkaria (Kathodia), Kolam, Maria Gond.
• Rajasthan
• Tamil Nadu – Kattu Nayakans, Kotas, Kurumbas, Irulas, Paniyans Todas.
• Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand – Buxas, Rajis.
• Andaman & Nicobar Islands – Great Andamanes, Jarawas, Onges, Sentinelese, Shorn Pens.

Status of Tribal Education in India:

• According to the census, 2011 literacy rate for STs is 59% compared to the national average of 73%.
• Literacy level among ST men is at 68.5% but for women, it is still below 50%

Constitutional provisions for Tribals:

• Article 29: Protects the interests of the minorities by making a provision that any citizen/section of citizens having a distinct language, script, for culture have the right to conserve the same.
• Article 46: Under the DPSP provides that, the state shall promote, with special care, the educational and economic interests of weaker sections of the people, and in particular, of the scheduled caste and scheduled tribes.
• Article 275 (1): Provides Grants in-Aids to states (having scheduled tribes) covered under the fifth and six schedules of the constitution.
• Article 350A: States that the state shall provide adequate facilities for instruction in mother-tongue at the primary stage of education.
• Fifth Schedule Art. 244(1): Article 244 (1) of the Indian Constitution defines Scheduled Areas as the areas defined so by the President of India and are mentioned in the fifth schedule of the Constitution. In India, there are 10 states having scheduled areas.
• Sixth Schedule Art. 244: The Sixth Schedule of the Constitution deals with the administration of the tribal areas in the four north-eastern states of Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram as per Article 244.

Legislative provisions for Tribals:

• The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006 (FRA) has a special section regarding the 75 PVGTs and the Act recognises forest and habitat rights of PVTGs.
• The Provisions of the Panchayats (Extension to the Scheduled Areas) Act, 1996 (PESA): It extends Scheduled Areas of India under the purview of the national framework of Panchayat. However, this act is not applicable to Jammu and Kashmir, Nagaland, Meghalaya and Mizoram and certain other areas including scheduled and tribal areas.
• The Andaman and Nicobar (Protection of Aboriginal Tribes) Regulation, 1956 – The Sentinelese and other aboriginal tribes of the Andaman& Nicobar Islands are protected under this act.
• Foreigners (Restricted Areas) Order, 1963 – the Andaman & Nicobar Islands are a “Restricted Area” in which foreigners with a restricted area permit (RAP) can stay.
• Andaman and Nicobar Islands (Protection of Aboriginal Tribes) Regulation, 1956 – The habitats of the PVTGs of Andaman and Nicobar Island has protected Tribal Reserve.
• In August 2018, in a bid to promote tourism and encourage investment, the Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) decided to exclude 30 islands from Andaman and Nicobar from the RAP or Restricted Area Permit regime notified under the Foreigners (Restricted Areas) Order, 1963. North Sentinelese island was among the 30 islands

The Prime Minister’s Office constituted a High-Level Committee (HLC) in 2013, under chairmanship of Prof. Virginius Xaxa. The Committee was mandated to examine the socio-economic, educational and health status of tribal communities and recommend appropriate interventional measures to improve the same. It submitted report in May, 2014. Key recommendations of committee were:

• Increase and strengthened the powers of Gram Sabha for land acquisition.
• Mining rights to cooperatives
• Acquired but unused land could be used for tribal rehabilitation.
• “No” to large dam
• Judicial commission on Naxal offences

Problem Faced by Tribes

• Problems related to the forest: The livelihood of the tribal community is based on forest. They enjoyed their traditional rights of hunting, gathering, shifting cultivation but the advent of modern government, in the name of forest protection stopped the movement of STs which brought the question of existence. Further, their lands are taken by various government agencies and the private sector for minuscule compensation.
• Poverty and exploitation: The tribal population are been exploited because of their innocence and they are pushed to a spiral of poverty. They have been living in forests from time immemorial, but after the government’s restriction, many became bonded laborers and getting exploited. In India, 52 percent of the STs belong to the category of Below Poverty Line (BPL) and 54 percent of them have no access to economic assets such as communication and transport (World Bank, 2011).
• Literacy rate: Literacy among the tribes of the north-eastern and island regions is relatively higher but despite that high dropout rate and the infant mortality rate is also a problem in the north-eastern region.
• Health Issues: PVTGs suffer from many health problems like anaemia, malaria; gastro-intestinal disorders; micronutrient deficiency and skin diseases due to poverty, lack of safe drinking water, bad sanitation, lack of health services, superstition and deforestation.
• Agriculture: The contributing factor such as dependency on agriculture, natural calamity, crop-failure, reduced access to land, and lack of employment, etc are the reason for poverty in the states like MP and Chhattisgarh.
• Unemployment: The rates of unemployment are high in the tribals of the island region. STs are confronted with problems like forced migration, exploitation, displacement due to industrialization led to losing command over the natural resources, and are unable to cope with the new pattern of work and resources for living.
• Lack of baseline surveys: The Anthropological Survey of India observed 75 PVTGs, baseline surveys exists for about 40 groups, even after declaring them as PVTGs. Lack of baseline surveys hinder effective implementation of welfare schemes.
• Outdated List: The Anthropological Survey of India observes that the list of PVTG is overlapping and repetitive. For example, the list contains synonyms of the same group such as the Mankidia and the Birhor in Odisha, both of which refer to the same group.
• More Dependency on MFP: Minor Forest Produce (MFP) is a major source of livelihood for tribals living in forest areas. Most of the trade-related to the MFPs remained unorganized in nature, which has led to low returns to the gatherers and high wastages due to limited value addition.
• Low level of technology: The tribes have a low level of technology which is not suitable for the modern-day. For example, they are still practising shifting cultivation which is problematic for the environment.
• Losing their identity: Nowadays, the tribes are coming out of their tribal fold and are increasingly getting assimilated into the non-tribal population by which they are losing their tribal culture, social institution, language, etc.

Minor Forest Produce (MFP):

• The government had earlier launched a scheme named “Minimum Support Price (MSP)” for the MFP scheme for safeguarding the remuneration of tribal population.
• The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006, defines a Minor Forest Produce (MFP) as all non-timber forest produce of plant origin and includes bamboo, brushwood, stumps, canes, Tusser, cocoon, honey, waxes, Lac, tendu/kendu leaves, medicinal plants and herbs, roots, tuber and the like.
• Vulnerabilities of tribes in Andaman and Nicobar: The fragile tribal communities have been facing expropriation of their ecosystem by outsiders. The outside influences are impacting their land-use patterns, use of the sea, overall biodiversity leading to material and non-material changes.

Steps Taken by Government

Van Dhan Scheme:

• Under the scheme, 10 Self Help Groups of 30 Tribal gatherers (Van Dhan Vikas Samuh) will be constituted. Tribal peoples will be given with working capital to add value to the products collected from the jungle.
• Van Dhan Vikas Kendra is multi-purpose establishments for providing skill upgradation, capacity building training, and setting up of primary processing and value addition facilities.
• They are provided with concessions for their representation in services. Those are, age limit exemption, reduction in standards of suitability, and inclusion at least in the lower category for purpose of promotion is otherwise than through qualifying examinations
• The Fifth Schedule of the Constitution provides for the setting Up a Tribal Advisory Council in each of the States having scheduled areas. The duty of these Councils is to advise the Government on such matters concerning the welfare of scheduled tribes and the development of scheduled areas.
• Tribal and Harijan Research Institutes were set up in MP, Odisha, Bihar, West Bengal, and Rajasthan. They study the tribal lifestyle, art, and customs for that protection and documentation.
• The Stand Up India scheme – aims at providing people belonging to the scheduled caste or scheduled tribe or women of the country a loan between Rs.10 lakhs to Rs.1 crore, based on their requirement. The aim is to promote entrepreneurship among them.
• Commissioner for the Scheduled Castes and Tribe: The main duty of the Commissioner is –
  • to investigate all matters relating to the safeguards for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes under the Constitution and 
  • to report the President on working of these safeguards.

Recommendations:

• A region-specific approach is required to bring positive change among the tribes. For example, the unemployment problems of the island region can be resolved by developing fisheries and tourism industry at large scale.
• There is a need for awareness generation is required for tribal communities to avail of the existing schemes and programs targeted.
• More access to the forest products among the forest dwellers should be facilitated in a positive direction.
• Promote sustainable economic activities – Development of cottage industries, plantations crops (e.g. coconut), fishing, animal husbandry etc. are some viable economic options given the fact that there is not much scope for agriculture.
• Protect Cultural Heritage – The ANTRI (Andaman and Nicobar Tribal Research and Training Institute) has been set up with an objective of formulation of policies for tribal integration and protection of PVTGs.

2. Womens

• Women empowerment became a subject matter all around the world in the past few decades. Many international organizations and agencies including the United Nations emphasized gender equality as an important issue.
• It is held that women cannot wait for any further to claim their equality in social, economic, and political space. The essence of equality has very wide benefits that the whole nation can enjoy.
• It is said that “empowering women is not alone morally essential, but also economically important for the country”.
• Out of the total population in India, women contribute 48.37% (According to the 2011 Census).

Problem Faced by Women

• Domestic Violence And Dowry Deaths: Dowry deaths are deaths of married women who are murdered or driven to suicide by continuous harassment and torture by their husbands and in-laws over a dispute about their dowry, making the women’s homes the most dangerous place for them to be. Women continue to face the most risks from their families. Among all registered cases of serious crimes against women, the largest share 36% of all cases were under “cruelty by husband and relatives”.
• Pink colorization of jobs: The women are mostly deemed fit for “pink-collar jobs” only, such as teachers, nurses, receptionists, babysitter, lecturer, etc. which have been stereotyped for women. This denies them opportunities in other fields.
• Early marriage:  especially of girl children, reduces their opportunities, denying them the chance to get empowered.
• Girl child denied timely interventions:  In nutrition and healthcare, especially in rural areas. Hence malnutrition and anaemia among Indian girls is one of the highest in the world.
• Education: it is denied, and even if allowed in some cases, the girl couldn’t attend classes due to time constraints as a result of household work.
• Glass ceilings: Women in India face artificial barriers like stereotypes, media-related issues, informal boundaries, which prevent them from advancing upward in their organization into management-level positions.
• Lack of political participation of women: The Indian Parliament currently has 11.8% women representation, and state assemblies have only 9%. Even though the 73rd constitutional amendment act mandates 33% of panchayat seats to be reserved for women. Prevalence of “Sarpanch Pati”.
• Patriarchal society and gender discrimination: A patriarchal society means a male-dominated society, and gender discrimination is when one Sex is given preferential concern over the others. Discrimination is also seen in education as male children get good school, whereas girl children do not get the same privilege.
• Unemployment: The unequal treatment of women has been a characteristic of provision for unemployment throughout its existence. Even though women are generally paid less, they are not preferred in many industries.
• A gap in digital literacy: Digital gender gap in India is huge, as less than a third of India’s total interest users are female i.e. 29 %.
• Globally in developing countries, the number of women using the internet is 12% less than men.

Recent Changes in Domestic Violence (DV) Act:

• The Supreme Court has struck down the words “adult male” from the pertinent provision in the DV Act to lay down that a woman can also file a complaint against another woman, accusing her of domestic violence.
• The reason given behind the change by the Supreme Court that the perpetrators and abettors of domestic violence can also be women, insulating them would frustrate the objectives of the Act. Under this immunity females and minors can continue to commit domestic violence.
• Because the change amended by the court makes DV gender neutral which according to some experts (including the bench) would help in serving the purpose of the law in a better way.
• The definition of Domestic Violence has been modified – it includes actual abuse or the threat of abuse that is physical, sexual, verbal, emotional, and economic and further harassment by way of unlawful dowry demands to the woman or her relatives.
• The Domestic Violence Act now covers “live-in partners”, wives, sisters, widows, mothers, single women, divorced women who are entitled to get legal protection under this Act.
• The act provides for the appointment of protection officers and NGOs to provide assistance to the woman for me.

Government Initiatives To Tackle With Gender Related Issues:

• Suvidha: Ministry of Chemicals & Fertilizers has launched a 100% Oxo- Biodegradable sanitary napkin, under the Pradhan Mantri Bhartiya Janaushadhi Pariyojana. It is an important step in ensuring health security for the section of Indian women who still use unhygienic aids during menstrual periods due to the non-affordability of sanitary pads.
• Project Stree Swabhiman: Ministry of Electronics and Information technology (MeITY) announced a project which aims to create a sustainable model for providing adolescent girls and women access to affordable sanitary products in rural areas.
• Nari Portal: It is a Mission Mode Project under the National E-Governance Plan (It is designed and developed by the National Informatics Centre (NIC), Ministry of Electronics & Information Technology).
• e-samvaad Portal: It is an initiative of the Ministry of Women and Child Development to provide a platform for NGOs and civil society to interact with the Ministry on relevant subjects. Through the E-Samvad portal, NGOs and civil society can provide their feedback, suggestions, put up grievances, share best practices, etc.

Cybercrimes Which especially Target Women:

• Harassment via E-Mails: It is a very common type of harassment through sending letters, attachments of files & folders i.e. via e-mails; most common now in the form of using social sites i.e. Facebook, Twitter, etc.
• Cyber-Stalking: It means expressed or implied physical threat that creates fear through the use of computer technology such as the internet, e-mail, phones, text messages, webcam, websites, or videos.
• Dissemination of Obscene Material: It includes Indecent exposure/ Pornography (basically child pornography), hosting of the web site containing these prohibited materials
• E-Mail Spoofing: A spoofed email may be said to be one, which misrepresents its origin. It shows its origin to be different from which actually it originates- This method is often used by cybercriminals to extract personal information and private images from unsuspecting women, these images, etc. are then used to blackmail those women.

Women Safety in India:

• Women’s safety involves various dimensions such as Sexual harassment at the workplace, rape, marital rape, dowry, acid attack, etc.
• Sexual Harassment acts as a deterrent to women’s freedom and perpetuates the notion that women are the weaker sex. The NCRB data highlights that sexual harassment is a risk in all facets of life: in shelter homes, in the workplace, in the home, on public transport.
• Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition, and Redressal) Act, 2013:
  • It widens the definition of ‘aggrieved woman’ to include all women, irrespective of age and employment status, and it covers clients, customers, and domestic workers.
  • It expands ‘workplace’ beyond traditional offices to include all kinds of organizations across sectors, even non-traditional workplaces (for example those that involve telecommuting) and places visited by employees for work.
  • The most important feature of the Act is the establishment of the Internal Complaints Committee (ICC) in establishments with 10 or more employees by an order given in writing by the employer.
  • A Local Complaints Committee (LCC) is a committee to receive complaints of sexual harassment at the workplace from establishments that do not have an ICC because they have less than 10 workers, or when the complaint is against the employer himself.
• Issues in implementation of the Sexual Harassment Act:
  • As 70% of the women do not report sexual harassment by superiors due to the fear of repercussions.
  • According to a 2015 research study, 36% of Indian companies and 25% of multinational companies had not yet constituted their Internal Complaints Committee (ICCs) which is mandatory under the Act.
  • The Cases remain pending in court for a long time enhancing the suffering of victims.
• Suggestions for better implementation:
  • Ministry of WCD launched an online complaint management system titled Sexual Harassment electronic–Box (SHe-Box) for the effective implementation of the SH Act, 2013 which will enable a monitorable and transparent system of grievance redressal under the Act.
  • The Ministry of WCD will set up an inter-ministerial committee headed by a senior official of the WCD Ministry.

Steps Taken by Government of India:

• The National Commission of Women (NCW) was started in 1992 to review the constitutional and legal safeguard of women, recommend remedial measures, facilitate grievance redressal, and advise the government on policy matters.
• Programs on Cyber Crime investigation – Various Law schools are engaged in conducting several awareness and training programs on Cyber Laws and Cyber Crimes for judicial officers.
• Training is imparted to Police Officers and Judicial officers in the Training Labs established by the Government.
• The Scheme for Universalisation of Women Helpline has been approved to provide 24-hour emergency and non-emergency response to all women affected by violence
• Ministry of Women and child development’s National Mission for Empowerment of Women (NMEW) aims to achieve holistic empowerment of women through the convergence of schemes programs of different Ministries Departments of Government of India (GOI) as well as State Governments. Under the scheme women helpline, a one-stop centre was introduced.
• National health programs such as the National Rural Health Mission (NRHM) and the Family Welfare Programme have been created to address the maternal health care needs of women across India.
• Pradhan Mantri Matru Vandana Yojna is a maternity Benefit Programme being implemented in all the districts of the country in accordance with the provision of the National Food Security Act, 2013.
• Weekly Iron and Folic Acid Supplementation Programme to meet the challenge of high prevalence and incidence of anaemia amongst adolescent girls and boys.

3. Scheduled castes

• Scheduled castes are those castes/races in the country that suffer from extreme social, educational, and economic backwardness arising out of the age-old practice of untouchability and certain others on account of lack of infrastructure facilities and geographical isolation, and who need special consideration for safeguarding their interests and for their accelerated socio-economic development.
• These communities were notified as Scheduled Castes as per provisions contained in Clause 1 of Article 341 of the Constitution.

Article 341(1) – the President of India, after consultation with the Governor, may specify, “the castes, races, tribes or parts of groups within castes or races, which shall be deemed to be Scheduled Castes”.

Problem Faced By Scheduled Caste

• The SCs were denied many basic amenities, such as drinking water, entering the temple, public transport, cemetery, etc. Many changes have been brought in, but it’s a hard reality that social disabilities still prevails.
• The schedule caste’s human rights are violated now and then by majority and other sections of the society. They were forced to do manual scavenging, working as bonded laborers, etc., which violated their basic human rights.
• Traditionally, Hindus disallow education for scheduled caste which still persists. They have been treated discriminately in the educational institution
• Many a time, scheduled castes are denied into the temple as they are still considered as untouchables (Gandhi ji termed them as “Harijan”). These disabilities are generally seen in rural areas and mostly not seen in urban areas.

Initiatives taken for SC development

• Educational Empowerment: 
  • Various scholarships provided at both pre-matric and post-matric levels to the students belonging to the SCs to ensure that education is not denied due to the poor financial condition of their families.
• Economic Empowerment:
  • National Scheduled Castes Finance and Development Corporation (NSFDC): Set up to finance income-generating activities of Scheduled Caste beneficiaries living below double the poverty line limits
  • National Safai Karamchari Finance and Development Corporation (NSKFDC):It is another corporation which provides credit facilities to beneficiaries amongst Safai Karamcharis, manual scavengers, and their dependents for income-generating activities for socio-economic development through State Channelizing Agencies
  • Venture Capital Fund for Scheduled Castes:The objective of the fund is to promote entrepreneurship amongst the Scheduled Castes who are oriented towards innovation and growth technologies and to provide concessional finance to the scheduled caste entrepreneurs.
  • The Stand Up India scheme – aims at providing people belonging to the scheduled caste or scheduled tribe or women of the country a loan between Rs.10 lakhs to Rs.1 crore, based on their requirement. The aim is to promote entrepreneurship among them. 
• Social Empowerment:
  • The Protection of Civil Rights Act, 1955:In pursuance of Article 17 of the Constitution of India, the Untouchability (Offences) Act, 1955 was enacted. The Act extends to the whole of India and provides punishment for the practice of untouchability. It is implemented by the respective State Governments and Union Territory Administrations.
  • Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989: Assistance is provided to States/ UTs for implementation of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989. Financial assistance is provided to the States/ UTs for implementation of these Acts, by way of relief to atrocity victims, an incentive for inter-caste marriages, awareness generation, setting up of exclusive Special courts, etc.