Social Mobility | Sociology Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Introduction - Social Mobility

Social mobility refers to the movement of individuals or groups between different social positions within a society's social structure. These positions can be related to economic, occupational, or income aspects. Social mobility can occur in different forms, such as vertical mobility (upward or downward movement between social strata) and horizontal mobility (movement within the same social stratum). The degree of social mobility varies across societies, with some being more open and flexible, allowing for greater social mobility, while others are more rigid and closed.

Open and Closed Systems of Stratification

On the basis of the degree of social mobility allowed within a society, systems of stratification can be classified into two types: open and closed systems.

• Open Systems: In an open system of stratification, the boundaries between social strata are relatively flexible, allowing for greater social mobility. In a theoretically completely open society, individuals can achieve the status that best suits their natural talents, abilities, and inclinations, based on their merits. The American class system is an example of an open system of stratification. However, no completely open society exists in reality, and various restrictions and barriers still limit social mobility in so-called open societies.
• Closed Systems: In a closed system of stratification, the boundaries between social strata are rigid, and social positions are usually determined by factors beyond an individual's control, such as birth, skin color, gender, or age group. In a closed system, social mobility is limited, and individual ability and effort generally do not contribute to changes in social position. Examples of closed systems include the caste system in India and the feudal society in Europe.

Types of Social Mobility

1. Vertical Mobility: Vertical mobility refers to the movement from one social position to another position of higher or lower rank. Upward vertical mobility occurs when an individual moves to a higher social position, while downward vertical mobility occurs when an individual moves to a lower social position.
2. Horizontal Mobility: Horizontal mobility refers to the movement of a person from one social position to another position of the same rank. In this case, there is no change in the individual's social position. For example, a teacher transferring from one school to another without a change in rank is an instance of horizontal mobility.

Inter-Generational and Intra-Generational Mobility

• Inter-Generational Mobility: Inter-generational mobility refers to the mobility between generations, where the measure of mobility is whether children have achieved a social position higher or lower than that of their parents. Upward inter-generational mobility occurs when children achieve a higher social position than their parents, while downward inter-generational mobility occurs when children achieve a lower social position than their parents.
• Intra-Generational Mobility: Intra-generational mobility refers to the social mobility of an individual within their own lifetime, as they experience upward or downward mobility at different points in their life. For example, a clerk being promoted to a higher position is an instance of intra-generational upward mobility, while a demotion would be an example of intra-generational downward mobility.

Factors Influencing Social Mobility

Research has identified various factors that influence social mobility in different societies. Two key conditions that encourage a high degree of upward social mobility are an advanced stage of industrial economic development and a large educational enrollment. As societies become more industrialized, low-skilled jobs are eliminated, and more middle and upper-level jobs are created. Structural mobility, or vertical mobility resulting from system changes, becomes more prevalent in such societies. However, to fully utilize the higher-ranking job opportunities, individuals need access to education and training, which can be provided through compulsory public education and low-cost, unrestricted higher education.

Studies On Social Mobility

The first significant study on intergenerational mobility in England and Wales was conducted by David Glass in 1949, focusing on occupational prestige as the criterion for comparing the status of sons with their fathers. The study revealed a high level of intergenerational mobility, but most changes in status were small and short-range. It also demonstrated that family background played a crucial role in life opportunities, with sons of higher-status fathers being more likely to achieve high-status positions themselves.

• The next major study took place in 1972, known as the Oxford Mobility Study. Unlike Glass's study, this research categorized occupations based on market rewards. One key difference between the two studies was the amount of long-range mobility, particularly out of the manual working class. However, a significant proportion of sons of high-status fathers remained in high-status positions themselves.
• Three factors contribute to the rate of social mobility in industrial society: changes in the occupational structure, differing fertility rates between social classes, and the increasing role of merit and education in determining occupational status. As educational opportunities become more accessible to people from all backgrounds, societies become more open, leading to higher social mobility rates.
• In recent years, studies of developed countries have found that the US has one of the lowest social mobility rates. The countries with the highest social mobility, such as Denmark, Norway, Finland, and Canada, have implemented changes in their education systems, social policies, and legal frameworks to create societies with greater mobility. This transformation has led to these countries becoming more like the land of opportunity that America once was.

Sources and Causes of Social Mobility

1. Structural Factors:

• Expansion of the industrial economy: The shift from an agrarian to an industrial and post-industrial economy has led to changes in the occupational structure. With industrialization and mechanization, manual jobs have declined, and unskilled jobs have been taken over by machines. This has led to a demand for specialized skills and knowledge in technical and high-skill jobs.
• Government-sponsored mass education programs: Initiatives like the National Literacy Mission and the establishment of Industrial Training Institutes (ITIs) have provided opportunities for individuals to acquire specialized knowledge and vocational skills.
• Lower birth rate in higher classes: As the economy expands and more high-status positions are created, the low birth rate in higher classes is insufficient for self-recruitment. This provides opportunities for people from lower classes to occupy higher positions.

2. Individual Factors:

• Achieved characteristics: Personal qualities like education, talent, motivation, and hard work play a significant role in determining the degree of mobility an individual can achieve in a given society.
• Ascribed characteristics: Factors such as family background, race, and gender also influence an individual's chances of upward mobility. For example, children from white-collar families are more likely to receive better education and have better career opportunities than those from blue-collar families.

3. Social Factors:

• Government policies for redistribution and social justice: Policies like land reforms and reservation have facilitated the upward mobility of socially and economically weaker sections in India, such as Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, and Other Backward Classes.
• Collective mobilization: The democratization of societies has led to collective movements like the Dalit movement, backward class movements, and peasant movements, which have contributed to social mobility.

Consequences of Social Mobility

Social mobility is essential in understanding the dynamics of social stratification and class formation. Sociologists study social mobility to analyze its impact on class solidarity, life chances of individuals, and the stability of society. This essay discusses the consequences of social mobility on class formation, life chances, and social stability from an UPSC examination perspective.

• Social Mobility and Class Formation: A low rate of social mobility leads to high class solidarity and cohesion, as most individuals remain in their class of origin. This results in the reproduction of common life experiences and the development of distinctive class subcultures and strong class identifications. Marx believed that a high rate of social mobility would weaken class solidarity and reduce the potential for class consciousness, as classes become increasingly heterogeneous.
• Social Mobility and Life Chances: Studying social mobility helps understand the degree to which a person's class of origin influences their chances of obtaining a high-status occupation. High rates of social mobility may offer individuals better opportunities for personal advancement, reducing the need for people to join together as members of a social class to improve their situation.
• Social Mobility and Social Stability: Upward social mobility serves as a "political safety valve" as it provides opportunities for members of the working class to improve their status. This prevents frustration from developing due to limited opportunities for upward mobility. Upwardly mobile individuals tend to adopt the social and political outlooks of the class they move into, often becoming more conservative than those born into it. Downwardly mobile individuals also tend to be politically conservative, clinging to middle-class values rather than rejecting the social order.
• Negative Consequences of Social Mobility: While upward mobility has its benefits, it can also cause stress and disruption within families and society. High rates of mobility may mean that individuals are moving too fast and too frequently to be easily assimilated into their new levels. In a society with high upward mobility, expectations may be over-aroused, leading to social discontent and civil strife.
• Meritocracy and its Discontents: A meritocracy is a society where talent and social roles are perfectly matched, and social status is achieved based on merit. However, Michael Young's satire "The Rise of the Meritocracy" points out possible dysfunctional elements of such a system. Members of the lower strata may become demoralized, as they are clearly inferior in a meritocracy. The upper stratum may rule society with arrogance and haughty self-assurance, leading to conflict between the ruling minority and the rest of society.

Conclusion

Social mobility is a crucial aspect of understanding social stratification and its impact on individuals and society. Open and closed systems of stratification, along with various types of mobility, play a significant role in shaping the opportunities and life chances of individuals. Factors such as structural changes, individual characteristics, and social policies influence the degree of social mobility in a society. While social mobility can provide opportunities for personal growth and contribute to social stability, it can also lead to stress, social discontent, and potential conflicts. As societies continue to evolve, understanding the dynamics and consequences of social mobility remains vital in shaping policies and addressing social inequalities.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) of Social Mobility

What is social mobility, and what are its different forms?

Social mobility refers to the movement of individuals or groups between different social positions within a society's social structure. The different forms of social mobility include vertical mobility (upward or downward movement between social strata) and horizontal mobility (movement within the same social stratum).

What are the differences between open and closed systems of stratification?

Open systems of stratification have flexible boundaries between social strata, allowing for greater social mobility based on an individual's merits. Closed systems have rigid boundaries, and social positions are determined by factors beyond an individual's control, such as birth or gender, limiting social mobility.

What are inter-generational and intra-generational mobility?

Inter-generational mobility refers to the mobility between generations, where the measure of mobility is whether children achieve a higher or lower social position than their parents. Intra-generational mobility refers to the social mobility of an individual within their own lifetime, as they experience upward or downward mobility at different points in their life.

What factors influence social mobility in a society?

Factors influencing social mobility include structural factors like the expansion of the industrial economy and government-sponsored mass education programs, individual factors such as personal qualities and family background, and social factors like government policies and collective mobilization.

What are some consequences of social mobility?

Consequences of social mobility include its impact on class formation, life chances of individuals, and social stability. High rates of social mobility can weaken class solidarity, increase personal advancement opportunities, and serve as a political safety valve. However, it can also cause stress, disrupt families and society, and lead to social discontent and civil strife.