Social Movement - 1 | PSIR Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Introduction - Social Movement

I. Overview of Women's Role in 19th and 20th Century India
To understand the role of women in the social and political movements of India, it is crucial to examine their roles in both pre-colonial and post-colonial eras. In the 19th and 20th centuries, women were subjected to various social and cultural restrictions, and their roles in society were limited. However, as India underwent significant changes, the role of women in these movements evolved.

II. The Period of Reforms and Nationalist Struggle: Movements "For" Women

• The period of social reforms and nationalist struggle can be categorized as movements "for" women. During this time, male social reformers fought for the rights and opportunities for women's advancement. Women actively participated in India's struggle for freedom, but the leadership was predominantly held by men.
• This era is of great importance as it marked the beginning of freedom for women. Social reformers like Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, and Jyotirao Phule focused on women's issues such as widow remarriage, female education, and the abolition of sati. These reform movements significantly impacted women's lives and paved the way for their active participation in India's freedom struggle.

III. Post-Independence Period: Movements "By" Women

• In the post-independence period, women began to focus on their own freedom. The foundation for this movement had been laid during the anti-British Raj days when women started discovering their identity through literature and activities as "terrorists." Women like Sarojini Naidu, Vijayalakshmi Pandit, and Aruna Asaf Ali played essential roles in India's freedom struggle and inspired many women to join the movement.
• After independence, women increasingly became part of the global women's movement and started playing a more prominent role in social and political movements in India. The Indian Constitution granted equal rights and opportunities to women, but challenges like gender discrimination, violence against women, and social issues persisted. These concerns led to the formation of various women-led movements like the Chipko Movement, the anti-dowry movement, and the Self-Employed Women's Association (SEWA).

Reforms for women in the 19th and early 20th centuries

The 19th century was a significant era for women's rights, as their abilities, potential, and the injustices they faced became the focus of passionate debates across Europe and its colonies. By the end of the century, feminist ideals had gained traction among "radicals" in countries like England, France, Germany, and Russia. In India, social reformers began to speak out against the mistreatment of women. Interestingly, these movements advocating for women were primarily led by men and originated in regions such as Bengal and Maharashtra.

Against Sati

• The Indian middle class, which emerged from Westernization, aimed to reform society by addressing issues such as caste, polytheism, idolatry, animism, purdah, child marriage, and sati, which they considered to be part of a 'pre-modern' or primitive society. Foreign missionaries had labeled these practices as examples of "Hindu barbarism," thus providing justification for colonial rule.
• Reformers like Ram Mohan Roy and Bidyasagar were able to gain administrative and legal support due to this perspective. In 1817, scholar Pandit Mrityunjay Bidyalankar declared that sati, the traditional Hindu practice of a widow immolating herself on her husband's funeral pyre, had no scriptural basis. In 1818, Governor William Bentinck banned sati in his province of Bengal. However, it took another 11 years for this prohibition to be extended to other parts of India through the Sati Prohibition Act of 1829.

Widow Remarriage

• In the 1850s, Indian social reformer Pandit Ishwarchandra Vidyasagar, alongside Pandit Mrityunjay, argued from the Shastras that widow remarriage was permissible. This sparked intense debates with orthodox pandits and opposition from some of the influential figures in Hindu society at the time. As a result, the Bengali press became filled with songs and satires both supporting and opposing widow remarriage. These verses even appeared in the designs of woven cloths, creating further unrest in society.
• In 1855, Vidyasagar submitted a petition to the Governor General, advocating for widow remarriage. Later, in 1871, a Widow Remarriage Association was established in Madras, but it was short-lived. In 1878, Virasalingam initiated the Rajamundri Social Reform Association, which primarily focused on promoting widow remarriage. In 1892, the Young Madras Party or the Hindu Social Reform Association was formed. The Aryan Brotherhood Conference, which included members such as Ranade and N.M. Joshi, once stated in a meeting, “let us no longer live in a fool’s paradise in the fond belief that because we have managed to survive so long… under our present social arrangement, we will be able to survive forever…”
• Despite the passing of an Act allowing widow remarriage and the establishment of numerous social reform organizations supporting the cause, only 500 widow remarriages took place in the forty years following the Act's implementation. Most of these remarriages involved child or virgin widows, while widows from upper castes who were not virgins did not remarry.

Rehabilitating of Prostitutes

• Many notable individuals fought for reforms against anti-woman socio-religious customs, including Jyotiba Phule, Dayanand Saraswati, Karve, Pandita Ramabai, Sister Nibedita, and Swarnakumari Devi, Tagore's sister. Bengal was home to rebellious spirits such as Madhusudan Datta and Henry Derozio, both of whom were powerful poets. They challenged male morality and faced the ire of reformers.
• Madhusudan Datta organized prostitutes and encouraged them to pursue acting as a profession instead. According to a 1869 report in Amrita Bazar Patrika, 90% of Calcutta's prostitutes were widows, many of whom came from Kulin Brahmin families. The "Kulins" were a particularly despised group of Brahmins whose socially sanctioned livelihood involved marrying multiple times and collecting dowries. They did not have to worry about their daily living expenses as they would frequently visit their wives' paternal homes, while the wives continued living with their fathers. The number of such "wives" could easily exceed 100. As a result, when a husband died, at least 100 widows would potentially become prostitutes.
• It is important to note that Bidyasagar, the first and greatest advocate for widow remarriage, found the idea of rehabilitating prostitutes morally repugnant and did not consider stopping the appalling practice of polygamy. Surprisingly, he did not realize that the number of widows would drastically decrease, and the problem would become much less significant if polygamy were strictly prohibited.

Arya Samaj

• Swami Dayanand was a revolutionary figure in his time, as he rejected the caste system and advocated for equal treatment of women, based on the teachings of the shastras. His Arya Samaj did not impose any duties or obligations on women that were not also applicable to men according to Hindu law. In his influential book, "Satyartha Prakash," Dayanand argued that polygamy, child marriage, and the seclusion of women were not present in ancient Aryan India.
• He called for compulsory education for both boys and girls and believed that there should be a balance between traditional and modern teachings through the mandatory learning of Sanskrit and English. He also increased the minimum age of marriage for girls and boys to 16 and 25, respectively.
• However, some Arya Samajis, such as Lala Lajpat Rai and Lal Chand, opposed higher education for women. They believed that the education provided to girls should be different, as it should not "unsex" them. In addition to basic literacy, arithmetic, and poetry, subjects like Arya Samaj religious literature, sewing, embroidery, cooking, hygiene, drawing, and music were taught to girls.
• The Brahma Samaj, which began as a protest against idolatry and the regressive norms and rituals of Brahminical Hinduism, also held stereotypical views about girls and women. This notion persisted until the later stages of the Indian freedom movement, with Subhas Chandra Bose being the only prominent dissenting voice. The justification for dividing the ages into "for" and "by" women lies in the fact that women at that time lacked the awareness and sensitivity to demand the same rights and opportunities as men.

Prohibition of Child Marriage

• In 1860, an Act was established that set the age of consent at 10 years old. Behram Malabari, a Parsi who was not a Hindu, began advocating for this Act towards the end of the 19th century. He was able to garner support from numerous lawyers, doctors, teachers, and public servants. These supporters, as expressed by the Jessore Indian Association, believed that early marriage weakened the physical strength of a nation and hindered its growth and development. Early marriage was also thought to affect the courage and energy of individuals, resulting in a weak and frail population. However, in 1891, influential figures like Tilak and Tagore led opposition against the Act.
• Reform movements were especially potent in the Bombay-Poona cultural region, with some individuals bold enough to question Brahminism, the foundation of Hinduism. For instance, in the 1840s, socio-religious reformer G.H. Deshmukh argued that Brahmins should abandon their irrational beliefs and accept the equality of all men and their right to acquire knowledge. However, when faced with the threat of being outcasted in 1871, Deshmukh softened his stance.

Education For Women & Women Emerging With Identity

1. The Role of Women in Literature: By the late 19th century, the effects of social reform movements began to manifest, with confidence and determination becoming evident in the lives and works of some women. Bengali literary circles started acknowledging and including female novelists like Nirupama Devi and Anurupa Devi, granting them membership in male-dominated literary clubs. Tagore's novels and short stories frequently feature strong female characters who outshine their male counterparts. Examples include "Gora" and "Gharey Bairey" by Tagore, "Anandamath" and "Debi Choudhurani" by Bankimchandra, and "Pather Debi" by Sharatchandra.
2. The Fight for Women's Rights: In 1907, Madame Cama unfurled a 'Bande Mataram' flag at the Congress of the Socialist International in Stuttgart, and in 1913, Kumudini Mitra was invited to the International Women's Suffrage Conference in Budapest, Hungary. Sarojini Naidu advocated for a series of reforms for Indian women before a committee led by Montague and Lord Chelmsford, and Sarala Debi made representations on behalf of Bharat Stree Mahamandal. The involvement of women in these political movements helped pave the way for future progress.
3. The Emergence of Female Novelists and Journalists: Kashibai Kanitkar was the first woman novelist from Maharashtra, followed by others like Mary Bhore, Godavaribai Samaskar, Parvatibai, and Rukminibai. In the South, Kamala Sathinandan, editor of the Indian Ladies Magazine, was also a writer. Sarala Debi, Kumudini Mitra, and Madame Cama made significant contributions to journalism, promoting the cause of revolution.
4. Women Empowering Women: Swarnakumari Debi, Rabindranath Tagore's sister, founded the "Sakhi Samiti" to train widows in education and teaching, thereby empowering them and promoting nationalism. The Samiti also organized crafts fairs to support women-centric cottage industries.
5. The Role of Women in the Nationalist Struggle: The Swadeshi movement in Bengal (1905-1908) marked the beginning of women's large-scale participation in nationalist activities. Women formed support groups and contributed money, jewelry, and even grains to the cause. Militancy became a prominent feature of samitis that had active female involvement.
6. The Fight for Equality: Sarojini Naidu, speaking at the Indian Social conference in 1906, urged men to restore women's rights and educate them to ensure the nation's progress. Tamil nationalist poet Subramanya Bharati celebrated women's achievements in his 1920 poem "The Dance of Liberation." As the discourse on equality evolved, women began to use nationalist arguments to demand equal rights. Revolutionary women called for sameness rather than complementarity, arguing that they had the same needs, desires, and capacities as men.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the role of women in India's social and political movements has evolved significantly over time, with various stages such as the pre and post-colonial era, and the movements "for" and "by" women. Throughout the 19th and 20th centuries, social reformers and nationalist leaders have fought for women's rights, slowly paving the way for women to participate more actively in public life. Despite the initial resistance and patriarchal norms, women gradually began to assert their identities, engage in nationalist struggles, and demand equal rights. The achievements and progress made by these pioneering women have laid the foundation for future generations to continue advocating for gender equality and women's empowerment in India.

Women’s Independent Political Identity

Despite the significant contributions of women in the struggle for Indian independence, they have often faced discrimination in politics. For instance, Gandhi did not include any women in his list of 71 marchers to Dandi. Renowned women such as Khurshid Naoroji and Margaret Cousins strongly protested this decision, but Gandhi remained firm, arguing that he had assigned a "greater role to women than the mere breaking of salt laws." However, Sarojini Naidu defied this exclusion and joined the march at its final stage, becoming the first woman to be arrested in the movement. Her defiance paved the way for thousands of women to join the salt satyagraha, marking the first time that the "masses of Indian women" became involved in the independence struggle.

Although husbands began to take pride in their wives' participation in the movement, they still expected their wives to seek permission before engaging in political activities. Some notable women who were involved in the struggle included Kasturba Glandhi, Kamaladebi Chattopadhyay, Nellie Sengupta, Basanti Debi (Roy), Durgabai Deshmukh, and Aruna Asaf Ali.

Women's Initiatives and Involvement in Politics

• Throughout history, women have played key roles in various political and social movements. For example, Lilabati Mitra supported Bidyasagar in the 1890s by providing shelter for grooms involved in widow re-marriages. Kamini Roy was active in the Ilbert Bill agitation, organizing meetings and distributing badges in support of the bill among girls at the Bethune School. She also worked with the Banga Mahila Samiti on social reform projects.
• The Aghorekamini Nari Samiti mobilized opinions against the mistreatment of female workers by tea planters. Inspired by Aurobindo's ideas on terrorism, Prabhavati Mirza became a committed trade unionist in the 1930s after protesting against Khudiram's hanging at the age of ten.

Women as "Terrorists"

• Several women became involved with revolutionary groups, earning them the label of "terrorists." Kumudini Mitra organized a group of educated Brahmin women who liaised with revolutionaries in hiding. In December 1931, Shanti Ghosh and Suniti Chowdhury assassinated district magistrate Mr. Stevens, who had harassed women beyond the limits of the law. Mina Das attempted to assassinate the Governor of Bengal, Stanley Jackson, in 1922. These women acted independently, with the first two being sentenced to life in prison.
• Preetilata Wadedar led a raid on a club frequented by Europeans, resulting in one death and four injuries. She took cyanide to avoid arrest, and a paper found on her body declared the raid as an "act of war." Pamphlets distributed on the same day urged teachers, students, and the public to join the campaign against the British rulers and Europeans. Sarala Debi and Sister Nivedita were also closely associated with and inspired by the Bengal "terrorists."

Major Issues Confronting Women’s Unity

Communalism & Casteism
Communalism and casteism have been significant issues affecting women's unity in India. The All India women’s Conference (AIWC) was one of the first organizations to address these issues in the 1930s. They organized protests against the reservation of separate seats for women in the legislatures based on communal criteria and demanded a uniform civil code for all women, irrespective of their caste or religion. However, by the 1940s, communal tensions within the AIWC led to the formation of separate organizations such as the All Pakistan Women’s Conference. Despite these challenges, AIWC and other organizations continue to work against communalism, casteism, and patriarchal oppression.

Daily Encounters with Oppression

• Against Alcohol: Women have been at the forefront of anti-alcohol movements in India, as alcoholism is often linked to domestic violence and impoverishment. The Anti-Arrack Movement in Nellore, Andhra Pradesh, was one of the most successful campaigns against alcoholism, and many other movements have followed suit.
• Against Dowry: The Progressive Organisation of aWomen in Hyderabad was the first to organize a powerful movement against dowry in 1975. The movement spread across the country, with organizations such as Mahila Dakshata Samiti in Delhi taking up the cause. These organizations have expanded their focus to address various forms of women's oppression and subjugation.
• Against Sexual Abuse: Rape and sexual abuse remain prevalent issues in India, with many incidents going unreported. Women's organizations such as Shakti Shalini, Sasbala Mahila Sangha, and Janvadi Mahila Samiti have been working tirelessly to address these issues and provide support to survivors.
• Environment and Livelihood: Women's livelihoods are closely linked to the environment, as they have traditionally been responsible for gathering and providing food for their families. As a result, women have been significantly impacted by environmental degradation and exploitation of natural resources. The Chipko and Narmada Bachao movements are examples of women's activism in environmental conservation.
• The Self-employed Women’s Association (SEWA) was the first organization in India and South Asia to unite women workers in the unorganized and home-based sectors. By closely collaborating with 'Mahila Kosh' or women’s co-operative bank, SEWA has inspired similar movements across South Asia and has influenced international laws to recognize and protect home-based workers.

In conclusion, women in India have been actively involved in various movements addressing issues such as communalism, casteism, alcoholism, dowry, sexual abuse, and environmental conservation. Despite the challenges faced, these movements have made significant strides in empowering women and improving their lives.