Social Organization of Work in Different Types of Society | Sociology Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Overview

Social organizations or institutions emerge from the social needs and situations of their members. These organizations serve as a means for individuals to adjust their behavior according to the environmental conditions. Lapiere states that "social organization encompasses all the ways in which people live and work together, particularly focusing on the structured, organized, and coordinated relations among society members." Social organizations at various levels facilitate and express collective behavior, coordinating and solidifying multiple interests of individuals and groups.

The Marxist theory of historical materialism views society as primarily shaped by its material conditions at any given time, meaning the relationships people form with each other in order to meet their basic needs, such as feeding and clothing themselves and their families. Generally, Marx and Engels identified five consecutive stages in the development of these material conditions in Western Europe.

Slave Society

1. Emergence of Slave Society: The second stage of human societal development, according to Marxist theory, is known as Slave Society. This stage is characterized by the emergence of private property, which leads to the division of society into classes, specifically the ruling class of slave-owners and the oppressed class of slaves.
2. Class Divisions and the Rise of the State: In Slave Society, the concept of class becomes prominent, with a clear divide between the slave-owning ruling class and the slaves themselves. This class division necessitates the establishment of a state as a mechanism for the ruling class to maintain control over the slaves and protect their interests. The state serves as an instrument of domination and oppression, enforcing the will of the ruling class.
3. The Role of Agriculture in Slave Society: The development of agriculture plays a crucial role in the emergence of Slave Society. People learn to cultivate plants and animals on a large enough scale to support growing populations. This agricultural surplus allows for the existence of a ruling class that does not need to engage in labor-intensive work, as they can rely on the labor of their slaves to produce the necessary resources.
4. The Evolution of Democracy and Authoritarianism: During the era of Slave Society, the concepts of democracy and authoritarianism both emerge. Democracy arises first with the development of the republican city-state, where citizens have a say in governance. However, as empires expand and conquer more territories, the need for a centralized authority leads to the rise of authoritarianism and totalitarian rule.
5. Private Property and Land Ownership: In Slave Society, individuals begin to own more than just personal property. Land ownership becomes particularly important, as it allows the ruling class to control the means of production in an agricultural society. The ruling class owns both the land and the slaves who work on it, while the majority of the population, including slaves and many women, are propertyless.
6. The Collapse of Slave Society: From a Marxist perspective, Slave Society eventually collapses due to its inherent contradictions and limitations. The need to continually conquer new territories and enslave more people to maintain the ruling class's wealth and power puts immense strain on the empire's resources and infrastructure. This ultimately leads to the decline and fall of empires like Rome, paving the way for the next stage of societal development.

Feudal Society

The third stage, known as Feudalism, emerges after the collapse of slave society and was particularly evident during the European Dark Ages when society transitioned from slavery to feudalism.

• Aristocracy is characterized by the rule of inherited monarchs, who sometimes gain power through marriage or conquest. During this period, theocracy becomes prominent as a single religion dominates all aspects of daily life. Hereditary classes, such as castes in India, are established where one's class is determined at birth without the possibility of advancement. Nation-states are formed from the remnants of fallen empires, sometimes with the aim of rebuilding themselves into empires once more, as seen in England's transition from a province to an empire.
• Feudalism comprises various classes, including kings, lords, and serfs, some of whom are little more than slaves. Most inherit their titles, whether beneficial or not. Simultaneously, trade with other nation-states increases rapidly, leading to the emergence of the merchant class.
• From the wealth of merchants, a capitalist class arises within the feudal society. However, conflicts with the aristocracy are inevitable, as the feudal kings and lords resist the social changes desired by the capitalists for fear of destabilizing or reducing their power base, among other reasons not solely tied to power or money.
• These early capitalist classes are motivated by profit but are hindered from further profit development by the nature of feudal society. For instance, serfs are tied to the land and cannot become industrial workers and wage earners. Marx suggests that this leads to an era of social revolution (such as the French Revolution of 1789, the English Civil War, and the Glorious Revolution of 1688) since the social and political organization of feudal society (or feudalism's property relations) obstructs the development of the capitalists' productive forces.

Capitalist Society

In Marxian economic theory, the capitalist mode of production refers to the systems that govern production and distribution within capitalist societies. This mode of production emerged rapidly in Western Europe during the Industrial Revolution and later expanded to most parts of the world. It is defined by private ownership of production means, surplus value extraction by the owning class for capital accumulation, wage-based labor, and a market-based system for commodities.

Within a capitalist mode of production:

• The primary inputs and outputs of production are privately owned and involve the buying and selling of priced goods and services in the market.
• Production aims at generating profit through exchange and circulation in the market.
• The dominant class, known as the bourgeoisie or capitalists, owns the means of production and derives their income from the surplus product created by workers. This surplus is appropriated by the capitalists without any payment to the workers.
• A key characteristic of capitalism is the reliance on wage labor for a significant portion of the population. The working class, or proletariat, does not own capital and must earn a living by selling their labor in exchange for wages.

Distinguishing Characteristics of Capitalist Society

Key Characteristics of Capitalist Society

• Capitalist society is characterized by the production and exchange of commodities, with the primary goal being the accumulation of money, or M-C-M' (where M represents money, C represents commodities, and M' represents the final amount of money). In this system, market actors determine the prices of input labor and commodities (M), as well as the final price of produced market commodities (M'). The objective is to achieve M' > M, which is necessary for the continuation of production and accumulation.
• Capitalism is driven by the principle of "production for exchange," where individuals aim to accumulate money through market transactions. Market forces, driven by consumer needs and desires, as well as the needs of the state, determine the production and distribution of goods and services. In contrast, a socialist or communist society would focus on "production for use," wherein the needs and wants of society would be the driving force behind production.
• Capitalism has existed in various forms throughout history, such as in the form of merchants and moneylenders who facilitated trade between producers and consumers. However, the capitalist mode of production is specifically characterized by the majority of inputs and outputs being supplied through the market (i.e., commodities) and the fact that almost all production occurs in this manner. This differs significantly from other modes of production, such as feudalism, where factors of production are owned outright by the ruling class, and products may be consumed without market involvement.
• In a capitalist system, the entire production process is organized according to the principles of economic rationality, as determined by the price relationships between inputs and outputs. This means that the entire process is shaped to conform to "commercial logic," with capital accumulation being the ultimate goal. As capitalism evolves and progresses, it eventually reaches a stage where it dominates on a global scale and must overcome its own limitations, as suggested by orthodox Marxism.
• In this context, Marx describes a transition from the "formal subsumption" of production under the power of capital to the "real subsumption" of production under the power of capital. This refers to the transformation of both technology and the social organization of labor to conform to a profit and market-oriented system. In the "specifically capitalist mode of production," traditional methods of production (e.g., crafts and cottage industries) have been replaced by industrialism.

In summary, capitalist society is characterized by the production and exchange of commodities for the purpose of accumulating money, driven by market forces and the principle of "production for exchange." The capitalist mode of production involves the majority of inputs and outputs being supplied through the market and the organization of production according to economic rationality and commercial logic. As capitalism evolves, it eventually reaches a stage where it must overcome its own limitations, as described by Marx's theory of the transition from formal to real subsumption of production under the power of capital.

Capitalism is an economic system and mode of production that can be characterized by the following key aspects:

• Capital accumulation: The primary goal of production in capitalism is to generate profit and accumulate wealth. This often leads to a focus on increasing production and expanding businesses, while reducing or eliminating traditional forms of production that are carried out on a communal or private household basis.
• Commodity production: In a capitalist system, goods and services are produced primarily for the purpose of being exchanged on a market. The focus is on maximizing their exchange value, which is the value of a commodity in relation to other commodities, rather than their use value, which is the value of a commodity based on its practical uses.
• Private ownership of the means of production: One of the defining features of capitalism is that the means of production – such as land, factories, and machinery – are owned by a class of capital owners. This ownership can take various forms, such as individual ownership, collective ownership by a group of capitalists, or state ownership that ultimately serves the interests of the capitalist class.
• Primacy of wage labor: In a capitalist system, the majority of the population earns their living through wage labor, which is work performed in exchange for a wage or salary. Workers are often required to work more hours than necessary to sustain themselves, resulting in the production of surplus value that benefits the capitalist class. Furthermore, capitalist societies are permeated by bourgeois values, which prioritize profit, competition, and individualism, shaping social relations and institutions at all levels.

The defining structural criteria of capitalism can be summarized as follows:

• Market-based production: In a capitalist system, goods and services (both means of production and consumption) are primarily produced for sale in an open market. Owners of capital can realize profits by selling their products and services, and inputs of production are also supplied through the market as commodities.
• Price determination: Prices of inputs and outputs are mainly determined by market forces of supply and demand, ultimately guided by the law of value. Capitalists use money to invest in means of production and labor to create commodities, which are then sold for a profit. This profit is reinvested to create more commodities and expand capital.
• Private ownership: Capitalist economies are characterized by private ownership and control of the means of production. Investment and management decisions are made by private owners, who act independently and do not coordinate their activities through collective planning.
• Profit-driven development: Enterprises set their output prices based on profitability criteria and the forces of supply and demand. Technological advancements are also guided by profitability concerns.
• Wage labor: Workers in a capitalist system are usually employed as wage earners, selling their labor power because they lack access to alternative means of subsistence. They can only obtain means of consumption through market transactions and are generally free to choose their employer.
• Competition: Capitalist production is characterized by competition among various stakeholders, including between capital owners for profits, assets, and markets; between capital owners and workers over wages and conditions; and between workers for employment opportunities and civil rights.
• Capital accumulation and privatization: The main goals of capitalist production are maximizing net profit income, capital accumulation, and privatization of both supply and consumption of goods and services.
• Class structure: Capitalist societies are marked by a class structure consisting of private capital owners and managers, wage and salary earners, the unemployed, and various intermediate classes such as small business owners, farmers, and skilled professionals.
• State finance: The capitalist state relies on taxes and credit to finance its activities, lacking any autonomous economic basis, such as state-owned industries or landholdings. The state also establishes a legal framework for commerce, civil society, and politics, defining public and private rights and duties as well as legitimate property relations.
• Periodic crises: Capitalist development, being uncoordinated and unplanned, is prone to periodic crises of overproduction and over-accumulation of capital. This can lead to recessions, depressions, and mass unemployment.

Communist Society

In a communist society, following the establishment of socialism, there is a significant leap forward in terms of social and economic development. People possess abundant personal belongings, but no one has the power to exploit others for personal profit through the ownership of massive monopolies or similar means. As a result, social classes are eradicated, and a classless society is formed. Communism eventually spreads across the globe, leading to a worldwide communist society. In time, the need for a state fades away, as individuals become capable of managing their own lives without the necessity for governments or laws. This leads to the establishment of stateless communism or pure communism, which is characterized by the following features:

• Statelessness: There are no longer any governments, laws, or nations.Classlessness: Social classes cease to exist, as everyone works collectively for the benefit of all.
• Propertylessness: Money and private property are abolished, and all goods are freely available for consumption by anyone in need.

In The Communist Manifesto, Marx describes communism as a society where class distinctions have disappeared, and all production is controlled by a vast association that encompasses the entire nation. Consequently, the public power loses its political nature. Political power, in its true sense, is the organized power of one class used to oppress another. If the proletariat, during its struggle with the bourgeoisie, is forced by circumstances to organize itself as a class and, through a revolution, becomes the ruling class, it will then abolish the old conditions of production. In doing so, it will also eliminate the conditions that give rise to class antagonisms and social classes in general, thereby abolishing its own supremacy as a class.

Conclusion

Social organizations emerge from the needs and situations of their members and serve as a means to adjust individual behavior according to environmental conditions. According to Marx and Engels, society has evolved through various stages, such as slave society, feudal society, capitalist society, and eventually, communist society. Each stage is characterized by different property relations, class structures, and social dynamics. Capitalism, in particular, is defined by private ownership of production means, surplus value extraction, wage labor, and a market-based system. In contrast, communism envisions a stateless, classless, and propertyless society where individuals collectively work for the benefit of all. The development and transition between these stages are shaped by historical material conditions and social forces that drive societal change.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) of Social Organization of Work in Different Types of Society

What are the key characteristics of a capitalist society?

A capitalist society is characterized by capital accumulation, commodity production, private ownership of the means of production, wage labor, market-based production, price determination, and competition.

How does a communist society differ from a capitalist society?

In a communist society, class distinctions disappear, and all production is controlled by a vast association that encompasses the entire nation. Money and private property are abolished, and all goods are freely available for consumption by anyone in need. This contrasts with a capitalist society, where private ownership, social classes, and market-based production are dominant features.

What role does the state play in a capitalist society?

In a capitalist society, the state establishes a legal framework for commerce, civil society, and politics. It defines public and private rights and duties, as well as legitimate property relations. The state also relies on taxes and credit to finance its activities, lacking any autonomous economic basis, such as state-owned industries or landholdings.

What are the main goals of capitalist production?

The main goals of capitalist production are maximizing net profit income, capital accumulation, and privatization of both supply and consumption of goods and services.

How does the Marxist theory of historical materialism view the development of societies?

Marxist theory views society as primarily shaped by its material conditions at any given time, meaning the relationships people form with each other in order to meet their basic needs. Marx and Engels identified five consecutive stages in the development of these material conditions in Western Europe: primitive communism, slave society, feudal society, capitalist society, and communist society.