Society: Town Dwellers, Women, Religious Classes, Caste and Slavery under the Sultanate | History Optional for UPSC PDF Download

Town dwellers: The Trading & Financial Classes

Ancient Indian Trading Practices:

• India had a long-standing tradition of trade with a well-established class of traders and financiers since ancient times.
• Legal frameworks for contracts, loans, sales, and purchases were outlined in the Dharmashastras.
• The emergence of the Vaishyas as a distinct trading community and their inclusion among the dvija(twice-born or privileged classes) reflects their significant role in social and economic life.

Merchant Classes:

• Nagar Sreshtins: Leading merchants who were socially close to rulers, involved in wholesale and long-distance trade, including foreign trade, finance, and money-changing.
• Banik: Ordinary shopkeepers.
• Banjaras: Transporters.

Trade Financing:

• Long-distance trade was financed and insured against risks using hundis.
• A hundi is a financial instrument used for remittance, credit, or as a bill of exchange in trade.

Factors Contributing to Trade Growth:

• Centralized Empire: The establishment of a strong centralized empire in North India.
• Currency System: Introduction of a sound currency system, primarily based on the silver tanka.
• Security of Roads: Improved security of roads facilitating trade.
• Urban Growth: Expansion of towns and urban centers.
• Islamic World Connection: Increased interaction with the Islamic world.

Multan as a Trading Hub:

• Multan became a significant trading center during medieval times, linking Central Asia and Iran.
• The Multanis, primarily Hindus, became wealthy through trade and financing, lending money to nobles and amassing gold and silver.
• Multani traders enjoyed religious freedom and led lives of ease and prosperity, contributing to the local economy.

Brokers and Trade Growth:

• Brokers(dallals) emerged as commission agents facilitating trade by connecting buyers and sellers, indicating the growth of trade in Delhi.
• Brokers specialized in various commodities, such as textiles and horses, and some, especially horse traders, were Muslim foreigners.

Foreign Traders:

• Foreign traders in Delhi included Iraqis,Iranians, and Khurasanis, with some Muslim Multanis also participating in trade.
• Afghans specialized in caravan trade and horse trading.

Trade in Gujarat:

• Gujarat had a strong tradition of trade with both Indian and foreign trading communities.
• Notable traders included Jains,Marwaris,Gujarati banias, and Bohras.

Standard of Living

Sultan and nobles:

Contemporary chroniclers offer detailed accounts of the extravagant lifestyles of the Sultans, highlighting various aspects such as:

• Palaces and Furnishings: The grandiose architecture and opulent interiors of the Sultan's residences.
• Harems: The substantial expenses incurred for the upkeep of numerous women and relatives within the harems.
• Clothing and Jewellery: The costly garments and exquisite jewellery adornments.
• Royal Stables: Expenditures related to the maintenance of royal horses and stables.
• Gifts: Lavish presents bestowed upon nobles, poets, scholars, and saints.

Such a lifestyle was not only customary but also aimed at impressing subjects and courtiers alike.

Affluence of Nobles:

• The rise of the Tughlaqs marked a period of increasing wealth among the nobles.
• During Balban's reign, nobles like Malik Kishli Khan showcased their wealth by gifting horses and large sums of money to poets and minstrels.
• Fakhruddin, Balban’s kotwal, was known for his charitable acts, such as providing financial grants to thousands of Quran readers and dowries for poor girls. He was also noted for his lavish personal habits.
• Imad-ul-Mulk, Balban’s diwan-i-arz, was famous for hosting extravagant meals for officials and clerks.

Wealth and Lifestyle of Nobles:

• Mir Maqbul, a noble under Muhammad Tughlaq, was known to spend lavishly on personal expenses.
• Khan-i-Jahan, the wazir under Firuz Tughlaq, had an enormous harem, reflecting the opulent lifestyle of the time.

Impact on Industries:

• The extravagant lifestyles of the nobles led to the establishment of specialized industries across the country, catering to the high demand for luxury goods.
• Most nobles did not hoard their wealth or invest it in productive enterprises, except for some investments in gardens during the reigns of Muhammad Tughlaq and Firuz Tughlaq.

Others

Financial Status of Hakims and Poets:

• Some renowned hakims appeared to be financially stable.
• The livelihood of poets and similar individuals depended on the patronage they received.
• For instance, Amir Khusrau's father received a stipend of 1200 tankas per year from Balban when he was a noble.
• Ahmad Chap, Balban’s ariz, once provided 10,000 tankas, 100 horses, and 320 dresses for royal musicians to perform at his home.
• Generally, these groups lived comfortably but not in great wealth.

Standard of Living in Towns:

• The standard of living for the general population in towns was mainly influenced by prices and wages.
• Before Alauddin Khalji, there is limited information about prices.
• Alauddin implemented market control measures to ensure the supply of affordable food items.
• Barani records prices during Alauddin's time: wheat at 7.5 jitals per man, barley at 4 jitals, and good quality rice at 5 jitals.
• Despite the low cost of subsistence, wages during this period were also low.

Post-Alauddin Price and Wage Changes:

• After Alauddin’s death, the price control system collapsed, leading to a rapid increase in prices.
• Wages increased fourfold during this time.
• Analysis of prices mentioned by Ibn Battutah indicates a rise of slightly over 1.5 times in prices.
• Wages likely increased by a similar proportion.
• Prices and wages were even higher during the early years of Firuz’s reign.
• During Firuz’s reign, prices nearly returned to Alauddin’s levels without significant effort from the Sultan, but wages remained high.

Fluctuation Causes of Food Grain Prices:

• The reasons behind the fluctuation in food grain prices, whether related to good harvests and expansion of cultivation or a global shortage of silver, remains a topic of debate.

Towns and Town Life: Artisans

Revival of Towns in North India (10th Century Onwards):

• North Indian towns began to revive from the 10th century, with significant acceleration in the 13th century due to Turkish centralization and the emergence of a new city-based ruling class.
• Delhi was noted by Ibn Battutah as the largest city in the eastern Islamic world, with Daultabad (Deogiri) matching its size. Other prominent cities included Multan,Lahore,Kara(near modern Allahabad),Lakhnauti, and Khambayat.
• Economic life in these towns was dominated by nobles,traders, and shopkeepers, with a large section consisting of servants,slaves,artisans,soldiers, and a mix of peddlers,musicians,performers,self-employed individuals, and beggars.
• Cities served as a social churner, bringing together people of diverse backgrounds, including slaves and artisans.
• The kotwal regulated city entry, maintained law and order, and oversaw markets and houses of ill repute. Professions were traditionally grouped in specific areas (mohallas) for safety.
• Towns had a distinct layout, with separate quarters for the king and nobles, while scavengers, leather-workers, and beggars were placed at the outskirts but within town walls.
• Delhi had a significant number of beggars, often seeking charity from nobles or visiting mausoleums and sufi shrines. They were armed and could disrupt law and order.
• Cities were hubs for various crafts like weaving, painting, and embroidery. Royal karkhanas employed artisans for luxury items, while most artisans worked from home, organized into guilds along caste lines.
• Craft specialization was not confined to towns; villages and small towns in south India and Gujarat also specialized in certain types of textile production.
• The connection between town and countryside crafts facilitated the movement of artisans from rural areas to urban centers.

Slaves

Slavery in Historical Context:

• Slavery has a long history in India, as well as in West Asia and Europe. The Hindu Shastras discuss different types of slaves, including those born into slavery, purchased, acquired, or inherited.
• The Arabs and Turks also practiced slavery, often acquiring slaves through war captives. The Mahabharata even accepted the enslavement of prisoners of war as normal.
• The Turks, in particular, practiced large-scale slavery during their conquests in and outside India. Slave markets existed in West Asia and India, with demand for Turkish, Caucasian, Greek, Indian, and even a small number of African slaves, mainly from Abyssinia.

Purposes and Valuation of Slaves:

• Slaves were often bought for domestic service, companionship, or specific skills. Skilled slaves or attractive individuals could fetch high prices.
• Some skilled slaves achieved high positions, like those serving Qutbuddin Aibak.

Slave Raiding and Enslavement Practices:

• Slave raiding was common in West and Central Asia, particularly by ghazis who captured and converted slaves. Early Turkish rulers in India, like Qutbuddin Aibak, continued this practice, capturing thousands during conquests.
• While large-scale enslavement was less common in later periods, captured prisoners of war were sometimes slaughtered, with only a few chosen as slaves.
• During campaigns of “pacification,” large numbers of people were enslaved and sold in the Delhi slave market.

Routine Nature of Slave Trade:

• The sale and purchase of slaves became routine, with prices of slave-girls and boys mentioned alongside cattle by historians like Barani.
• Unlike Central Asia, where captured Turkish slaves were used for military purposes, slaves in Delhi were mainly for domestic service.

Training and Utilization of Slaves:

• Slaves were generally not trained as craftsmen, though some maid-servants were used for spinning. Notable exceptions included Firuz Tughlaq, who instructed nobles to capture slaves during wars and send the best for the Sultan’s service.
• A significant number of slaves were trained as artisans, indicating a shortage of skilled workers in towns.
• Slaves also formed a corps of armed guards, but attempts to create a Janissary-like corps failed, with the corps of slaves trying to act as kingmakers after Firuz’s death.

Slavery under the Mughals:

• Domestic slavery persisted under the Mughals, but slaves did not play significant roles in manufacturing or military.
• Overall, slavery was an inhuman practice that diminished the status of free labor and depressed wages.

Women, Caste and Customs

Caste

Changes in Hindu Society Structure:

• During this period, there were minimal changes in the structure of Hindu society.
• The Smriti writers maintained a high regard for the brahmanas while criticizing those who were unworthy within this group.

Agricultural Permission for Brahmanas:

• One perspective allowed brahmanas to engage in agriculture not only during times of distress but also during normal periods. This was because officiating at sacrifices and similar tasks did not provide sufficient means of sustenance in the Kali Age.

Kshatriya Duties:

• The Smriti texts emphasized that it was the duty of the kshatriyas to punish the wicked and protect the good.
• The right to wield weapons for the protection of the people was also exclusive to the kshatriyas.

Duties and Restrictions for Shudras

• The duties and occupations of shudras were reiterated, with their highest duty being service to the other castes.
• Shudras were permitted to engage in all occupations except for dealing in liquor and meat.

Restrictions on Vedic Study:

• The ban on the study and recitation of the Vedas by shudras was reiterated.
• However, there was no ban on hearing the recitation of the Puranas.

Extreme Views on Shudra Interactions:

• Some writers held extreme views, suggesting that not only should one avoid eating a shudra’s food but also avoid living in the same house, sitting on the same cot, and receiving religious instructions from a learned shudra.
• The most severe restrictions were placed on mingling with chandalas and other 'outcastes.'

Women

Position of Women in Hindu Society:

• There was little change in the position of women in Hindu society during this period.
• The old practices of early marriage for girls and the wife’s obligation to serve and be devoted to her husband continued.
• Marriage annulment was allowed under special circumstances like desertion or serious illness.
• Widow remarriage was prohibited, but this restriction seemingly applied only to the upper three castes.
• Sati(the practice of a widow self-immolating on her husband’s funeral pyre) was viewed differently by various writers: some approved it while others imposed conditions on it.
• Travelers like Ibn Battutah noted the practice of sati and the need for permission from authorities for its performance.
• Property rights for widows improved, as commentators acknowledged their right to a sonless husband’s property, provided it was not joint. Widows had full rights to dispose of this property rather than merely being guardians.
• The practice of purdah(seclusion and veiling of women) became widespread among upper-class women, influenced by similar practices in ancient Iran,Greece, and adopted by the Arabs and Turks.
• Purdah grew partly due to the fear of women being captured by invaders and partly as a symbol of higher social class.
• Religious justifications were also found for purdah, which ultimately made women more dependent on men.

Social intercourse between Hindus and Muslims

During the Sultanat period:

• Muslim society was divided into ethnic and racial groups, such as Turks, Iranians, Afghans, and Indian Muslims, with significant economic disparities among them.
• These groups rarely intermarried, developing a form of caste exclusiveness similar to that of the Hindus. Converts from lower Hindu sections also faced discrimination.
• The upper classes of Hindus and Muslims had limited social interaction due to the Muslims' superiority complex and religious restrictions on intermarriage and inter-dining.
• Upper-caste Hindus applied to Muslims the same restrictions they imposed on shudras.
• Despite caste restrictions, there were instances of social interaction, such as Hindu soldiers joining Muslim armies and Hindus serving as managers for Muslim nobles.
• The local administration was largely in Hindu hands, creating opportunities for mutual intercourse.
• However, conflicts of interest and differences in social and cultural practices slowed down the processes of mutual understanding and cultural assimilation.