Soul: Immortality; Rebirh and Liberation | Philosophy Optional Notes for UPSC PDF Download

Introduction

I. Four Major Views of Self: There are four major views of self that have been prominent in different philosophical and religious traditions:

• Dualism posits that the soul or mental phenomena are non-physical and distinct from the material body. In dualism, the soul and the body are not identical.
• Major Western philosophers like Plato, Aquinas, and Descartes have endorsed dualism.
• In the East, the Samkhya School of thought distinguishes between Purusa (Soul) and Prakriti (matter).
• Dualists often affirm the idea of life after death, which can take various forms, such as resurrection or reincarnation.

• Materialism asserts that there is no immaterial aspect of the self; the self, including the soul or mind, is composed of matter.
• Some materialists argue that there is no life after death, as the person perishes with the physical body.
• Others suggest that life after death is possible through the resurrection of the body by God.
• The Carvaka system in Indian philosophy also follows a materialist understanding of the self.

• Monistic pantheism, as found in Advaita Vedanta, holds that ultimate reality, referred to as 'Brahman,' is undifferentiated and beyond all qualities, including personhood.
• According to this view, the self or atman is an illusion and a product of Maya, which creates the appearance of differentiation and individuality.
• Selfhood is considered illusory, and the true self is seen as being part of Brahman.

• Buddhists reject the notions of dualism, materialism, and Advaita view of self. They adhere to the doctrine of anatman or anatta, which means 'no-self.'
• According to this doctrine, there is no permanent, autonomous self within an individual existence.
• The individual personality is considered a temporary creation of the skandhas, which are temporary and fleeting aggregates.
• Buddhists believe in the continuity of karmic tendencies, and personal identity is seen as an ever-changing process.

• The law of karma represents the ethical dimension of rebirth (samsara) and is a central concept in Indian religions.
• Karma refers to the principle that good or bad actions determine future life situations.
• Reincarnation and rebirth are connected with karma, and they explain how individuals experience the consequences of their actions in this life or in subsequent lives.

• Karma is not predetermined fate but rather the result of actions and their reactions in this and previous lives.
• The law of karma treats everyone equally, providing equal opportunities for growth.
• Free will plays a role in shaping one's actions, and understanding karma helps individuals regulate their actions and make wiser choices.

• Immortality refers to the indefinite continuation of a person's existence even after death.
• The problem of immortality is closely linked to the notion of personal identity, as it addresses how the deceased person can be identical to the original person who lived.
• Immortality, for the theist, involves the endless duration of personal existence with the prospect of infinite enrichment of one's personality.

Immortality in Theism: The Conservation of Souls

• The theistic concept of God is that of a creator who, out of boundless love and creative power, brought the entire universe into existence. This creation is driven by the intention to give rise to creatures who will ultimately be molded into souls.
• These souls are seen as the worthy recipients of the fellowship of a holy God and have the potential to enter the Kingdom of God.

• The process of the creation of souls has been a complex and non-linear journey. It involved various stages and phases, including the emergence of life on Earth. This process saw many species reaching dead ends and becoming extinct.
• Ultimately, humans emerged as beings with conscious will and ideals. The question then arises: If the universe is created with the purpose of generating souls, should these souls be allowed to perish once they have emerged?
• This question is deepened by two important considerations: a. Endless Potential for Purpose: No individual, no matter how accomplished or successful in their earthly endeavors, can claim that their purposeful activity has no further grounds to cover. Even great figures like Newton, Kant, or Gandhi continue to have ample room for purposeful activity. b. Divine Goodness and Wisdom: The creator of the universe, according to theistic beliefs, is supremely good and infinitely intelligent. As such, it is inconceivable that such a creator would allow saints, sages, scientists, or any individuals of value to simply perish.
• Therefore, the task at hand for humanity is seen as infinite, while the time allowed on Earth is extremely finite. Without the conservation of these remarkable individuals, the creator's divine purpose would be left unfulfilled. God, in this view, exists in the perpetual act of giving of Himself to His finite creatures. It is through this perpetual creative act that finite persons must somehow be preserved.

The theistic perspective on immortality is closely tied to the idea of the eternal conservation of souls. It is rooted in the belief that the creation of the universe serves the purpose of nurturing and evolving souls that have the potential to enter into a divine fellowship. This perspective underscores the infinite value and purpose of human life and the perpetual involvement of a loving and creative God in the preservation of these souls.

Purpose of Immortality and Kant's Argument

• If the ultimate purpose of life, mind, and spirit is considered to be true, then the very purpose of God in relation to them would be thwarted.
• Evolution, as indicated by the development of life on Earth, seems to suggest that the ultimate purpose is the production of free spirits through a long and challenging process.
• It appears tragic that this divine purpose would be frustrated by physical death, which seemingly nullifies the entire evolutionary journey.
• The only viable alternative is to envision the continuation of spiritual life, with the appropriation of love and other forms of value, despite the mortality of the body.

• Immanuel Kant's approach to proving the immortality of the soul is rooted in moral experience.
• Kant's argument begins by emphasizing that we move from something present in the human mind to the mind of the world, which must exist if what is present in the human mind corresponds to reality.
• Kant posits that the moral requirement for immortality is driven by the fact that humans are impelled to pursue moral ends. However, the destruction of human personalities through death could render the realization of these moral ends unattainable.
• Since moral obligations cannot be fully realized in this life, the obligation itself would be illusory unless there exists a broader plane of existence where another realization of these moral obligations is possible.
• It would be a peculiar world if individuals were obliged to do what they cannot actually do. Only under the assumption of immortality is there a possibility of fulfilling these moral obligations.
• Obedience to the moral law, according to Kant, demands endless progress. Such progress is conceivable only if there is an eternal duration of existence for the same rational being. Kant argued that immortality is a necessary postulate if moral experiences are to be taken seriously.

• The notion of endless survival, including the survival of memory and the pursuit of the same earthly aims and purposes for their better realization, is logically unique.
• The problem with this concept lies in the fact that the presence of higher purposes and their realization is closely intertwined with earthly circumstances, including fear, passion, hopes, and socio-economic conditions.
• If the continuation of these earthly circumstances is deemed necessary for the pursuit of purposes in the theory of endless survival, it implies an endless cycle of repetition.
• Some religious hopes of survival in a paradise exist independently of earthly circumstances. They describe a state where the weary find rest, the wicked cease to trouble, and there are no tears and sorrows. However, without the fear of defeat and the possibility of failure, there would be no incentive for energetic activities, enterprises, and risky undertakings.
• Indian thinkers discussed the concept of release from the cycle of endless births and rebirths, emphasizing that the endless chain represents imperfection and the continuation of sorrow rather than hope. They viewed liberation from this cycle as a path to freedom and the possibility of transcending suffering.

Pragmatic Argument for Immortality

• Some argue that the positive effects of believing in immortality are so beneficial that they can be considered as evidence for the truth of the belief.
• However, this is not a logical argument in favor of immortality. It is based on the observation that believing in immortality can have positive effects on individuals.
• It's worth noting that believing in eternity might lead to a decrease in efforts to improve the world in which one currently lives. In some cases, the belief in immortality can be seen as "world-and-life-negating."
• Thus, the belief in eternity does not necessarily guarantee salutary effects, and the relationship between belief and its consequences is complex.

• Nirvana is a state that can be attained by a person while in their earthly body. Once Nirvana is achieved, the individual becomes free from the cycle of endless births and deaths, achieving timelessness.
• In this concept of eternity, life is both retained and transcended. This can be likened to a great work of art, like the Madonna or Parsifal, which takes time to create but becomes timeless once completed.
• Similarly, a person can become a thing of value, a co-creator of worthiness with God. Great figures like Newton, Einstein, Gandhi, and Shankar are remembered not just for their existence at a particular time and place but for their discoveries and contributions.
• It is said that "he who knows the Brahman himself becomes the Brahman." Prophets, seers, and sages in various religious traditions undergo spiritual adventures where they become timeless, beyond the limitations of time and change.
• Spinoza's concept of "amor intellectualis Dei" suggests that by contemplating changeless and timeless things, one can become a timeless existence. By focusing on things that do not change, individuals can free themselves from the disturbances of passions and attain a form of love that goes beyond their personality and becomes eternal.
• In the realm of religion, the goal is not just to find a string of pearls but to become a shining string of pearls, embodying eternal values. Religious truths are not just discovered; they are made true through one's free decision and commitment to them.
• Nirvana, for example, cannot be conferred by anyone but must be attained through one's ceaseless efforts and inner light. This form of Nirvana is selfless in the most literal sense, transcending selfish and unselfish concerns.

These perspectives emphasize that immortality, whether in a spiritual or pragmatic sense, is not just about eternal existence but also about the transcendence of temporal limitations.

The Concept of Liberation

The concept of liberation or salvation is fundamental in many religious and philosophical traditions and presupposes a state of bondage or suffering from which individuals seek to be released. Here are some key points regarding liberation in different religious and philosophical contexts:

• The concept of liberation in these traditions is known as Moksha (or Mukti) in Indian philosophy and religion.
• It refers to the liberation from the cycle of death and rebirth (samsara) and the attainment of spiritual freedom.
• The state of bondage is termed samsara, representing the ongoing cycle of birth, death, and rebirth.
• Different philosophical schools offer various paths to liberation, often involving the realization or attainment of knowledge of ultimate reality.
• In the Upanishads, two types of benefits are presented: Jivanmukti (liberation while living) and Videhamukti (freedom after death).

• Realization brings a sense of fulfillment in life, freedom from limitations, and a realization of the all-pervading Self within oneself.
• The realized person becomes independent mentally and emotionally, free from emotional disturbances due to the accumulation or deprivation of material things or relationships.

• After death, the unrealized individuals only drop their physical bodies. The subtle and causal bodies continue to exist for those who remain ignorant.
• Liberation frees one from the continuous cycle of birth and death and the cause-and-effect cycle of Karma.

• The Bhagavad Gita discusses concepts related to desires, rebirth, and freedom from the cycle of life and death.
• It emphasizes self-realization and the discipline required to attain liberation, which includes restraining the senses and stabilizing the mind.

• In Christianity, salvation is considered possible through Jesus Christ. It is believed that Jesus' death on the cross atoned for humanity's sins.
• Salvation is a process that begins when a person becomes a Christian, continues throughout their life, and is completed when they stand before Christ in judgment.
• The concept of immortality in Christianity differs from that in the Bhagavad Gita. It emphasizes resurrection as a special divine act of recreation.
• Christianity also includes the notion of a final judgment by God, where people are glorified or punished.

• The Christian concept of eternal life is connected to salvation and faith in Jesus Christ.
• It involves the promise of resurrection and a transformed embodied existence.
• In Christianity, individuals look forward to an embodied existence in the afterlife, not just an existence as pure spirits.
• The notion of immortality in Christianity is closely tied to God's grace and the promise of resurrection.

In both contexts, the possibility of liberation and immortality is a central theme, providing meaning, reason, and ethics to one's life. While the specific beliefs and practices may differ, the quest for liberation and the hope of attaining immortality remain important aspects of these religious and philosophical traditions.