State of Politics, Culture and Economy on the eve of the British Conquest | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

State of Politics

• The early 1700s marked the decline of the once-mighty Mughal Empire, which had been a powerful force in India for nearly two centuries.
• Aurangzeb's Reign (1658-1707): Many believe that Aurangzeb's unpopular policies weakened the Mughal state. After his death, the empire faced more challenges due to battles for power and ineffective leaders.
• After Aurangzeb: Even though Muhammad Shah ruled for 29 years (1719-1748), he was not a strong leader, and the empire did not recover under his rule.
• During Muhammad Shah's time, several regions like Hyderabad, Bengal, Awadh, and Punjab became independent states. Local leaders started to gain power, and the Marathas began to rise as a significant force.

Challenges before the Mughals

• The Mughals struggled to defend against external invasions due to a lack of internal strength and neglected northwestern borders.

Nadir Shah's Invasion (1738-1739):

• Nadir Shah, the Persian emperor, invaded India, defeating the Mughal army at Karnal and capturing Delhi.
• He looted vast treasures, including the Peacock Throne and the Kohinoor diamond, along with an estimated seventy crore rupees.
• Nadir Shah gained control over important territories, including Kabul, making India vulnerable to further invasions.

Ahmad Shah Abdali's Invasions (1748-1767):

• Ahmad Shah Abdali, Nadir Shah's successor, invaded India multiple times, harassing the Mughals.
• In 1751-52, the Mughals ceded Punjab to him in an attempt to buy peace.
• In 1757, Abdali captured Delhi and installed Afghan caretakers over the Mughal emperor.
• He recognized Alamgir II as the Mughal emperor and appointed Najib-ud-Daula as Mir Bakhshi.

Maratha and Abdali Conflicts:

• In 1758, Najib-ud-Daula was expelled from Delhi by Maratha chief Raghunath Rao, who also captured Punjab.
• In 1759, Abdali returned to India to avenge the Marathas, defeating them in the Third Battle of Panipat in 1761.
• Abdali's last invasion occurred in 1767.

Internal Challenges
Bahadur Shah I (1709–1712):

• After a lengthy succession war, Prince Muazzam became emperor Bahadur Shah I, known as Shah-i-Bekhabar by Khafi Khan.
• He pursued peaceful relations with the Marathas, Rajputs, and Jats, releasing Maratha prince Shahu and confirming Rajput chiefs in their states.
• However, he acted against Sikh leader Banda Bahadur's attacks on Muslims in Punjab.
• Bahadur Shah I died in February 1712.

Jahandar Shah (1712-1713):

• Jahandar Shah became emperor with Zulfikar Khan's support, who introduced the izara system to improve finances.
• Jahandar Shah abolished the Jaziya tax.

Farrukhsiyar (1713-1719):

• Farrukhsiyar ascended the throne after Jahandar Shah's death, aided by the Sayyid brothers.
• He abolished the Jaziya and pilgrimage tax, promoting religious tolerance.
• In 1717, he granted privileges to the British.
• Farrukhsiyar was dethroned and killed by the Sayyid brothers in 1719, marking the first noble-led murder of a Mughal emperor.

Muhammad Shah (1719-1748):

• Following Rafiud-Daula's death, Muhammad Shah, known as 'Rangeela' for his lavish lifestyle, became emperor with the Sayyid Brothers' backing.
• He overthrew the Sayyid Brothers with Nizam-ul-Mulk's help, who later founded the independent state of Hyderabad.
• Nadir Shah invaded in 1737, and in 1739 defeated the Mughals, annexing parts of India into the Persian Empire.

Ahmad Shah (1748-1754):

• Ahmad Shah was an ineffective ruler, delegating power to Udham Bai, the 'Queen Mother,' and her lover, Javid Khan.

Alamgir II (1754-1758):

• Alamgir II, a grandson of Jahandar Shah, ruled during Ahmed Shah Abdali's invasion and the Battle of Plassey.

Shah Alam II (1759-1806):

• His reign included the Third Battle of Panipat and the Battle of Buxar.
• In 1765, he came under the East India Company's protection, granting them revenue rights in Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa.
• He was taken to Delhi in 1772 and later accepted English protection in 1803, with Mughal emperors becoming pensioners of the English.

Akbar II (1806-1837):

• He conferred the title of Raja to Rammohan Rai.
• In 1835, coins bearing Mughal emperors' names were discontinued.

Bahadur Shah II (1837-1857):

• The last Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah II or Zafar, was declared the Emperor of India during the Revolt of 1857.
• He was captured by the English and exiled to Rangoon, where he died in 1862.
• The Mughal Empire officially ended on November 1, 1858, with Queen Victoria's declaration.

Causes of Decline of Mughal Empire 

• Historians debate the causes of the Mughal Empire's decline, with two main perspectives:
• Empire-related view: Attributes decline to the internal structure and functioning of the empire.
• Region-related view: Attributes decline to instability and turmoil in various regions of the empire.
• The decline process began during Aurangzeb's reign but accelerated after his death in 1707.
• At Aurangzeb's death, the empire was still strong enough to potentially recover.
• Regional powers like the Sikhs, Marathas, and Rajputs challenged Mughal authority but lacked the ability to overthrow the empire entirely.
• Weak and ineffective successors after Aurangzeb hastened the empire's disintegration and collapse.

Shifting Allegiance of Zamindars:

• Zamindars and Nobles: During the medieval period, the zamindars and nobles shared power with the emperor. Zamindars were hereditary landowners responsible for revenue collection and local administration, while nobles were assigned large jagirs and mansabs to maintain Mughal authority.
• Zamindars' Power Increase: Despite Mughal efforts to curb their power, zamindars gained influence during Aurangzeb's reign. This shift encouraged regional loyalties, with many zamindars assisting the nobility in carving out independent kingdoms.
• Nobility's Role: The nobility, often seen as central to Mughal administration, was marked by divisiveness based on religion, homeland, and tribe. Mutual rivalry and contest for power among these groups diminished the emperor's prestige and contributed to the empire's decline.

Jagirdari Crisis:

• The nobility was crucial to Mughal rule, with many Rajput rulers and subahdars among them. However, divisions based on religion, homeland, and tribe led to mutual rivalry and jealousy.
• Without strong central leadership, these rivalries diminished the emperor's prestige and contributed to the empire's decline.

Rise of Regional Aspirations:

• During Aurangzeb's reign, regional groups such as the Jats, Sikhs, and Marathas challenged Mughal authority in their quest for independence.
• Although they did not succeed in establishing their kingdoms at that time, their struggles significantly weakened the Mughal Empire.
• Aurangzeb's attempts to suppress the Rajputs led to increased resistance from them, while later Mughal efforts to reconcile with the Rajputs came too late to restore trust.
• The Marathas initially focused on regaining control over Maharashtra but expanded their ambitions to collect sardeshmukhi and chauth across India.
• By 1740, the Marathas had extended their influence into Gujarat, Malwa, and Bundelkhand, further undermining Mughal power.
• The Rajput struggle and the Marathas' growing strength collectively weakened the Mughal Empire.

Economic and Administrative Problems:

• The sharp increase in the number of amirs and their ranks or mansabs led to a scarcity of land for distribution as jagirs.
• Aurangzeb's attempt to address the shortage of jagirs by inflating recorded income from jagirs was a short-sighted solution.
• This approach antagonized both amirs and peasants, as amirs pressured the peasantry to meet the recorded income.
• Additional burdens on the state included wars, extravagant lifestyles of emperors and amirs, and a reduction in khalisa land.
• The state's expenditure exceeded its income, and there were no significant advancements in science and technology to improve a stagnant economy.
• Trade, once flourishing, did not boost the empire's finances, especially with the increasing presence of European traders along the coasts.
• These economic and administrative issues worsened after Aurangzeb's death.
• The empire became too large for effective centralized administration, especially under weak and incompetent rulers.

Satish Chandra's Analysis:

• Satish Chandra traced the Mughal empire's disintegration to the Medieval Indian economy.
• He highlighted stagnation in trade, industry, and scientific development, along with a financial crisis affecting the jagirdari system and state activities.
• Chandra noted the nobility's inability to fulfill their ambitions, leading to factional struggles and ambitious nobles seeking independent dominion.
• The Mughal emperors' failure to accommodate the Marathas and create a composite ruling class contributed to the empire's breakdown.
• While individual failings played a role, they were set against deeper, impersonal factors impacting politics and security.

Rise of Regional States

Successor States: Mughal provinces that became states after separating from the empire. Examples include Awadh, Bengal, and Hyderabad.

• These states did not challenge Mughal sovereignty but established nearly independent and hereditary authority.

Independent Kingdoms: States that emerged due to the weakening of Mughal control over provinces. Examples include Mysore, Kerala, and the Rajput states.

The New States: States created by rebels against the Mughal empire, such as the Maratha, Sikh, and Jat states.

Survey of Regional Kingdoms

Hyderabad: Founded by Kilich Khan, also known as Nizam-ul-Mulk.

• Zulfikar Khan initially envisioned an independent state in the Deccan.
• Kilich Khan fought against the Mughal viceroy Mubariz Khan and defeated him in the Battle of Shakr-Kheda (1724).
• He became the viceroy of the Deccan in 1725 and took the title Asaf-Jah.

Awadh: Founded by Saadat Khan, known as Burhan-ul Mulk.

• Saadat Khan, a Shia, gained a higher mansab after conspiring against the Sayyid brothers.
• After his death, Safdar Jang succeeded him as the Nawab of Awadh.

Bengal: Founded by Murshid Kuli Khan, who made Bengal prosperous.

• He was succeeded by his son Shuja-ud-din in 1727.
• Alivardi Khan killed Sarfaraz Khan in 1740 and made himself independent of the Mughal emperor.

The Rajputs: Attempted to regain independence in the 18th century.

• Mughal ruler Bahadur Shah I had to march against Ajit Singh, who had allied with Jai Singh II and Durgadas Rathor.
• At one point, the Rajputs controlled a vast territory from south of Delhi to the western coast.

Mysore: Ruled by the Wodeyars and later by Haider Ali.

• Haider Ali faced constant warfare with the British, as did his son Tipu Sultan.

Kerala: Established by Martanda Varma with Travancore as the capital.

• He expanded the state's boundaries and organised his army along Western lines.
• Implemented various measures for state development.

The Jats: Revolted against Aurangzeb's policies and established the Jat state of Bharatpur.

• Suraj Mal expanded the territory and improved administration.
• After his death in 1763, the state declined and split into small areas controlled by zamindars.

The Sikhs: Transformed into a militant sect by Guru Gobind Singh.

• Ranjit Singh established a strong kingdom in Punjab, conquering Lahore and Amritsar.
• He modernised the army and acknowledged British rights over cis-Sutlej territories.
• After his death in 1839, the British took control of Punjab.

The Marathas: Under the Peshwas, they uprooted Mughal authority from Malwa and Gujarat.

• They claimed to be the chief inheritors of Mughal dominion but faced challenges, including the Third Battle of Panipat (1761).
• Despite setbacks, they became a significant power challenging the English East India Company.

Rohilakhand and Farukhabad: States established by Afghan migrants in India.

• Ali Muhammad Khan founded Rohilakhand, taking advantage of the political turmoil after Nadir Shah's invasion.
• Mohammad Khan Bangash set up an independent kingdom around Farrukhabad during the Mughal reigns of Farrukhsiyar and Muhammad Shah.

Nature and Limitations of Regional States:

• These independent political systems maintained ties with Mughal authority and acknowledged the emperor's importance.
• Even rebel chieftains recognized the Mughal emperor as the supreme authority.
• The polity in these states was regional and functional, supported by local groups like zamindars, merchants, and nobles.
• Provincial rulers had to cater to various local interests to maintain power.
• Some regions, like Mysore, had different dynamics, such as not recognizing local chieftains.
• The regional states faced limitations in financial, administrative, and military organization.
• Despite attempts at modernization, most were backward in science and technology.
• Constant warfare with neighboring powers hindered stability.
• While strong enough to challenge Mughal power, none could establish a stable all-India polity.
• The jagirdari crisis worsened with declining agricultural income and increasing contenders for surplus.
• Though trade prospered, the rest of the economy stagnated.

Socio-Economic Conditions 

• The 18th century in India was marked by a lack of significant progress in economic, social, and cultural aspects.
• India was characterized by stark contrasts, with extreme poverty coexisting alongside extreme luxury. While the common people lived in poverty and oppression, the wealthy enjoyed a life of luxury. However, it is important to note that the living conditions of the Indian masses in the 18th century were generally better than those after a century of British rule.

Agriculture:

• Agriculture in the 18th century was technically backward, but it relied heavily on the hard labor of peasants. Unfortunately, these hardworking peasants rarely reaped the rewards of their labor.
• Despite agricultural produce supporting society, peasants received miserably inadequate rewards for their efforts.
• Peasants faced exorbitant payments to the state, zamindars, jagirdars, and revenue farmers, a situation that worsened under British rule.

Trade and Industry:

• India was self-sufficient in handicrafts and agricultural products, leading to minimal imports of foreign goods.
• Indian industrial and agricultural products were in high demand in foreign markets, resulting in greater exports than imports.
• Trade was balanced through the import of silver and gold, with India known as a sink of precious metals.

Items of Import:

• Persian Gulf Region: pearls, raw silk, wool, dates, dried fruits, rose water.
• Arabia: coffee, gold, drugs, honey.
• China: tea, sugar, porcelain, silk.
• Tibet: gold, musk, woolen cloth.
• Africa: ivory, drugs.
• Europe: woolen cloth, copper, iron, lead, paper.

Items of Export:

• cotton textiles, raw silk and silk fabrics, hardware, indigo, saltpetre, opium, rice, wheat, sugar, pepper and other spices, precious stones, drugs.

Important Centres of Textile Industry:

• Dacca, Murshidabad, Patna, Surat, Ahmedabad, Broach, Chanderi, Burhanpur, Jaunpur, Varanasi, Lucknow, Agra, Multan, Lahore, Masulipatnam, Aurangabad, Chicacole, Vishakhapatnam, Bangalore, Coimbatore, Madurai.
• Kashmir was notable for woollen manufactures.

Ship-building Industry:

• Maharashtra, Andhra region, and Bengal were leaders in ship-building.
• Indian shipping flourished on the Kerala coast at Calicut and Quilon.
• The Zamorin of Calicut utilized the Muslim Kunjali Maraikkars for his navy.
• Shivaji Bhonsle’s navy effectively defended the west coast against the Portuguese.
• European companies purchased many Indian-made ships for their use.

Status of Education:

• Education in 18th-century India was traditional and lagged behind the rapid developments in the West.
• Knowledge was limited to literature, law, religion, philosophy, and logic, excluding physical and natural sciences, technology, and geography.
• Elementary education among Hindus and Muslims was widespread, with Hindu and Muslim elementary schools called pathshalas and maktabs, respectively.
• Higher education was offered in chatuspathis or tols, with notable centres for Sanskrit education in Kasi(Varanasi), Tirhut(Mithila), Nadia, and Utkala.
• Madrasahs provided higher education in Persian and Arabic, with Azimabad(Patna) being a famous centre for Persian education.

Societal Set-up:

• Society in 18th-century India was characterized by traditional outlook and stagnation, with divisions based on caste, religion, region, tribe, and language.
• The family system was primarily patriarchal, and caste was central to the social life of Hindus. While the choice of profession was mainly determined by caste, exceptions occurred, making caste status fluid in some areas.
• Caste councils and panchayats enforced caste norms, and Muslims, despite being enjoined to social equality, were also divided by caste, race, tribe, and status.

Position of Women in Society:

• In the patriarchal family system, women had little individuality, with upper-class women typically staying at home and lower-class women working to supplement the family income.
• Outdated customs such as purdah, sati, child marriage, and polygamy hindered the progress of women.
• The plight of Hindu widows was particularly grim, and the practice of dowry was widespread.
• Efforts to promote widow remarriage were made by figures like Raja Sawai Jai Singh of Amber and Prashuram Bhau, but these attempts largely failed.

Menace of Slavery:

• Reports from European travelers in the 17th century indicated the prevalence of slavery in India, with people sometimes compelled to sell their offspring due to economic distress, famines, and poverty.
• Higher classes such as Rajputs, Khatris, and Kayasthas kept women slaves for domestic work.
• Slaves in India were generally treated better than in Europe, often regarded as hereditary servants rather than menials.
• Slaves could marry, and their offspring were considered free citizens.
• The arrival of Europeans intensified slavery and the slave trade in India, with European trading companies purchasing slaves for export to European and American markets.
• Abyssinian slaves were sold in various Indian markets, including Surat, Madras, and Calcutta.

Development in Art, Architecture and Culture 

Decline of the Mughal Empire and Rise of Provincial Courts:

• The decline of the Mughal Empire led talented individuals to seek patronage from newly established state courts such as Hyderabad, Lucknow, Jaipur, Murshidabad, Patna, and Kashmir.
• Political instability hindered extensive building activities, but in Lucknow, Asaf-ud-Daula constructed the Bada Imambara in 1784.

Architectural and Astronomical Contributions:

• In the early 18th century, Sawai Jai Singh established the pink city of Jaipur and built five astronomical observatories in Delhi, Jaipur, Benares, Mathura, and Ujjain.
• He also created the Jij Muhammad-shahi time-tables to aid the public in studying astronomy.
• In Kerala, the Padmanabhapuram Palace was built, renowned for its architecture and mural paintings.

Emergence of New Painting Schools:

• New schools of painting emerged, with the Rajputana and Kangra schools gaining prominence and showcasing fresh vitality and taste.
• The Patna School of Painting, or Patna Qalaam, developed in Bihar as the world’s first independent painting school focused on the common people and their lifestyles.
• During the reign of Mohammad Shah, master artists like Nidha Mal and Chitarman created vibrant paintings depicting court life, including scenes of Holi celebrations, hunting, and hawking.
• As the imperial studio lost painters to provincial courts, the decline of the Mughals benefitted provincial styles.

Urdu Poetry and Literary Life:

• The 18th century saw the rise of Urdu language and poetry, with poets like Mir, Sauda, Nazir, and Mirza Ghalib gaining prominence.
• During Mohammad Shah’s reign, Urdu became popular and was declared the court language, replacing Persian.
• In South India, Malayalam literature thrived under the patronage of the Travancore rulers, with poets like Kanchan Nambiar.
• Tamil literature was enriched by sittar poetry, with Tayumanavar protesting against temple-rule abuses and the caste system.
• Warris Shah composed the romantic epic Heer Ranjha in Punjabi literature.
• Shah Abdul Latif contributed to Sindhi literature with Risalo, a collection of poems.

Musical Developments:

• Music flourished in the court of Mohammad Shah, with vocalists Sadarang and Adarang contributing to singing.
• New forms of music like Taranaa and Dadra emerged during this period.
• Bahadur Shah Zafar, a noted Urdu poet, compiled his ghazals into Kulliyyat-i-Zafar.
• Zafar’s court was home to prolific Urdu writers, including Mirza Ghalib, Dagh, Mumin, and Zauq.