Strategy and Ideologies of the Indian National Movement | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Strategy of Indian National Movement 

• The strategy adopted by the Indian national movement in its struggle against colonial rule was a fundamental aspect of its long-term dynamics.
• The ability of a people to struggle depends not only on exploitation and domination but also on the strategy and tactics of their struggle.
• Existing writings have not adequately addressed the strategy of the national movement.
• Unlike the leaders of the Russian and Chinese Revolutions, the leaders of the Indian national movement were not theoretically inclined and did not explicitly articulate their political strategy.
• Various phases of the struggle, including constitutional activity, constructive work, political decisions, forms of struggle, non-violence, and Satyagraha, are integral parts of a basic strategy.
• Large elements of the nationalist strategy were developed during the Moderate and Extremist phases of the movement, but it was structured and came to fruition during the Gandhian phase and Gandhiji’s political practice.

Factors behind the Evolution of Nationalist Strategy 

1. Nature of British Rule 

•  The nationalist strategy was shaped by the specific nature of British rule and the colonial state in India. 
•  Indian leaders recognized the exploitative nature of colonial rule but also understood that the colonial state was not entirely oppressive like regimes in Nazi Germany or Soviet Russia. 

2. Colonial State Characteristics 

• The colonial state was characterized as  legal authoritarianism  . 
• It was established by force, but also relied on the creation of civil institutions such as elected assemblies, local governments, courts, and schools. 
• The colonial state observed the rule of law and provided some civil liberties during non-movement periods, making it  semi-democratic  and  semi-authoritarian. 

3. Semi-Hegemonic Nature 

• The colonial state was  semi-hegemonic  because it relied on the belief that the foreign rulers were benevolent and just, and that they were modernizing India. 
• It also propagated the idea that the colonial rulers were invincible and that opposing them was futile. 

4. Strategy of the National Movement 

• The national movement developed its strategy in opposition to the colonial state’s semi-hegemonic and semi-authoritarian character. 
• The basic strategic perspective was to wage a long-term  hegemonic struggle  , aiming to win the hearts and minds of the people. 
• The movement aimed to expand its influence through various phases, alternating between extra-legal mass movements and legal actions. 

5. Active Struggle for Power 

• The strategy was not about gradual reform but about actively  struggling for power  from the colonial rulers. 
• The national movement sought to continuously grow its influence among the people and wrest power from the colonizers. 

Objectives of Nationalist Strategy 

• Mass Participation:  The effectiveness of the nationalist strategy depended on the active involvement of the masses. The first objective was to engage the masses in political action, overcoming their political passivity, especially in rural areas. 
• Ideological Struggle:  The second objective was to gradually undermine the ideological influence of the colonial rulers. The British ruled not just by force but through a belief system, which needed to be challenged. The goal was to expose colonialism as the real enemy and dismantle the notion of British benevolence and invincibility. 
• Undermining Colonial Beliefs:  The nationalist movement aimed to weaken the belief in the benevolence and invincibility of British rule. This was initiated by Moderates like Dadabhai Naoroji and R.C. Dutt, and carried forward by Extremists and later, during the Gandhian era. 
• Challenging Colonial Authority:  Mass movements after 1918 were crucial in challenging the idea that British rule was unchallengeable, instilling fearlessness and the capacity to fight among the people. 
• Influencing Colonial Officials:  The strategy also involved weakening the loyalty of colonial officials in the civil services, police, and armed forces, gradually winning them over to the nationalist cause. 
• British Public Opinion:  Efforts were made to weaken the hegemony of colonial ideology among the British public and to expand the semi-democratic political space in India, preventing colonial authorities from limiting it. 

Nationalist Strategy: Struggle-Truce-Struggle (S-T-S) :

• The nationalist strategy involved a long-term struggle against colonial authority, characterized by a cycle of vigorous mass movement, temporary truce, and renewed struggle.
• This approach aimed to undermine colonial hegemony, recruit and train nationalist workers, and build the people's capacity to struggle.
• The process was seen as an upward spiral, with each stage representing an advance over the previous one.
• The strategy recognized that national liberation was incomplete until state power was fully transferred, and freedom was considered a whole, not a partial transfer.
• The non-mass movement phases were treated as integral parts of the anti-imperialist struggle, with different forms of struggle, such as civil disobedience in mass movement phases and ideological work in passive phases.
• The strategy was based on the understanding that mass movements could not be sustained indefinitely and needed periods of rest and consolidation.
• The national leadership aimed to increase the people's capacity to sacrifice and face colonial repression while recognizing their limits.
• The strategic perspective also acknowledged the colonial state's strength and capacity to crush movements, particularly before 1945.
• The national movement produced a cadre of full-time political workers, but its real strength came from the masses.
• The shift between mass and non-mass movement phases was seen as a tactical decision, not a matter of principle, based on the reality on the ground.
• Gandhiji emphasized the importance of timely withdrawal and choosing the right moment for action in political leadership.

He always keeps the initiative and never lets it fall into the hands of the enemy. 

• In a Satyagraha campaign, the approach and tactics are determined by the situation's demands.
• The timing of starting or withdrawing a movement was decided by Gandhiji and the national leadership.
• Decisions were based on the movement's strength, the masses' endurance, and the government's resources.
• The question was not whether to negotiate with the government, but when and how to negotiate.
• Considerations included what to negotiate about, the expected outcomes, and terms for a truce.

Constructive work  was central to Gandhian strategy and involved promoting: 

• Khadi and village industries 
• National education 
• Hindu-Muslim unity 
• Struggle against untouchability and social upliftment of Harijans 
• Boycott of foreign cloth and liquor 

Constructive work was represented by numerous Ashrams established across the country, mainly in villages. 

• It was fundamental to a war of position and played a vital role during the non-mass movement phase, filling the political space left by the withdrawal of civil disobedience. 
• Constructive work helped maintain a sense of activism during non-mass movement periods and involved a large number of people. 
• Unlike parliamentary and intellectual work, which could be done by a few, constructive work could engage millions. 
• It provided a large cadre for the Civil Disobedience Movement and created a core group of workers who formed Gandhiji's "steel frame" or standing army. 

Constitutional Reforms and Legislative Councils:

• Formed a basic element of the colonial strategy to address Indian nationalism.
• Indians had to develop a complex approach towards legislatures.

Constitutional Structure:

• Represented instruments of colonial domination. 
• Also reflected the anti-colonial struggle and changing balance of forces. 

Colonial Authorities' Hope:

• Believed constitutional work would weaken nationalist unity. 
• Aimed to create splits within nationalist ranks. 

Nationalist Response:

• Had to engage with constitutional reforms while pursuing their own strategy. 
• Occupied the political space created by colonialism. 
• Experimented with working the reforms to advance the nationalist cause. 

Dominant National Leadership (Post-1880):

• Viewed councils as a means to undermine colonial hegemony. 
• Used legislative councils and municipal bodies to promote reforms. 

Nationalist Strategy Success:

• Work in councils filled political void during national movement's recovery. 
• Those in legislatures exposed the hollowness of colonial reforms. 
• National Congress avoided splits and remained committed to mass politics. 

Gandhiji and Non-Violence:

• Gandhiji viewed non-violence as a principle. 
• Others in Congress saw it as a strategic policy. 

Hegemonic and Mass Mobilization: 

• Non-violence was integral to the movement's mass mobilization strategy. 
• Allowed participation of diverse groups, including women. 

Moral Force and Colonial Dilemma:

• Non-violence challenged colonial authority on moral grounds. 
• Colonial authorities faced a dilemma in suppressing peaceful movements. 

Winning Strategy:

•  Non-violent mass movements were difficult for colonial authorities to counter. 
• Colonial authorities often resorted to suppression but faced moral challenges. 

Suppression of Non-Violent Movement and Erosion of Colonial Hegemony:

• The colonial rule faced constant erosion of its hegemony due to the suppression of a non-violent movement, which exposed the fundamental reliance of colonial authority on force and coercion.
• Over time, the moral basis of colonial hegemony was gradually dismantled.

Adoption of Non-Violence:

• The choice of non-violence was influenced by the fact that a disarmed population had limited alternatives.
• Since 1858, the colonial state had systematically disarmed the Indian people, making it nearly impossible for them to acquire arms or training.
• Leaders of the national movement recognized that Indians lacked the material resources for an armed struggle against the powerful colonial state.

Strength in Nonviolent Mass Struggle: 

• In nonviolent mass struggle, moral strength and mobilized public opinion were crucial, and the disarmed Indian people were not at a disadvantage.
• Nonviolence in a mass movement was a way to equalize political resources with the armed colonial state.

Avoiding Government Repression:

• Disarmed Indian people could not withstand severe government repression.
• The use of violence would give the government justification for launching a massive attack on the popular movement.
• This would lead to demoralization of the people and result in political passivity.

Nature of Mass Movements:

• Mass movements, by their nature, had to be non-violent.
• In the context of India, non-violent struggle was as revolutionary as armed struggle in other contexts, leading to changes in the structure of state and society.

 Criterion of Success:

• The success or failure of mass movements was determined by the extent to which colonial hegemony was undermined and the people were politicized and prepared for struggle.
• Successive waves of mass movements, alternating with phases of truce, progressively achieved these objectives.

Achievements Despite Suppression:

• Even when mass movements were suppressed, withdrawn, ignored, or compromised, they marked significant leaps in mass political consciousness and weakened colonial hegemony. 

Strategic Practice and Global Significance:

• The strategic practice of the Indian national movement, particularly under Gandhiji, holds historical significance comparable to major revolutions like the British, French, Russian, Chinese, Cuban, and Vietnamese revolutions. 
• India stands as a unique historical example of a semi-democratic or democratic state structure being transformed through a Gramscian war of position. 

Ideologies of Indian National Movement

Formation of Anti-Colonial Ideology:

• The Indian national movement emerged from the central conflict between colonialism and the interests of the Indian people. 
• The movement's leadership developed a clear understanding of colonialism, recognizing that the British were using their political control to exploit and subordinate the Indian economy and society for the benefit of Britain. 
• This understanding led to the perception that India was regressing and underdeveloping under colonial rule, forming the basis for a clear anti-colonial ideology. 

Modes of Colonial Exploitation:

• By the late 19th century, the founders of the national movement identified three modes of colonial exploitation:
•  Plunder, Taxation, and Employment of Englishmen:  The British exploited India through plunder, heavy taxation, and the employment of English officials in various capacities within India.
•  Free and Unequal Trade:  British trade practices were free in terms of access but unequal, favoring British interests at the expense of Indian industries.
•  Investment of British Capital:  British capital was invested in India, but this investment primarily served British interests rather than contributing to India's development.

Character of Colonial Relationship:

• The leaders understood that India's colonial relationship was not a historical accident but stemmed from the very nature of British society and India’s subordination to it.
• This understanding was central to their critique of colonialism, focusing on the  theory of the drain of wealth  from India to Britain.

Drain of Wealth Theory:

• The theory posited that a significant portion of India’s capital and wealth was being transferred to Britain, highlighting the exploitative nature of colonial rule.
• This understanding of imperialism's economic mechanisms was deepened after 1918, influenced by anti-imperialist movements and the spread of Marxist ideas.

Dissemination of Anti-Colonial Ideology:

• The anti-colonial worldview was embraced by the grassroots levels of the national movement, particularly during the Gandhian era of mass politics.
•  Cadres  of the movement spread this critique among the common people in both urban and rural areas.
• The focus was on the  drain of wealth  and the use of India as a  market for British goods  , which led to the destruction of Indian handicraft industries.

Undermining Colonial Myths:

• This agitation challenged the colonial narrative that the British ruled India for the benefit of Indians, undermining the myth of the British as the  "Mai-Baap"  (mother-father) of the Indian people.
• The movement's grasp of the primary contradiction between colonialism and Indian interests provided its material basis, while its anti-colonial ideology offered the ideological foundation.

Role of Ideology in Mass Movements:

• Ideology plays a crucial role in mass movements, as active participation requires a strong commitment to the underlying causes of social conditions.
• The scientific anti-colonial ideology of the movement was the driving force behind its anti-imperialist struggle.

Vision for Independent India:

• Alongside the anti-colonial perspective, the movement envisioned  bourgeois or capitalist  independent economic development and a  secular, republican, democratic,  and  civil libertarian political order  .
• Both the economic and political systems were to be based on principles of social equality, ensuring a just and equitable society for all Indians.

 National Movement and Democracy 

 The national movement was dedicated to establishing  parliamentary democracy  and safeguarding  civil liberties  . It created the necessary environment for these principles to take root, despite colonial rulers claiming that India was unsuitable for democracy due to its climate, traditions, and social institutions. The British authorities also interfered with and attacked freedoms such as  speech  and  press  . 

 The national movement had to fight for and adapt democracy to Indian conditions. From the outset, it advocated for a  representative government  based on popular elections. Leaders like  Tilak  and later  Gandhiji  and the Congress  called for  adult franchise  , allowing all adult men and women to vote. 

Democratic Principles within the Indian National Congress 

• The Indian National Congress was founded on  democratic principles, with public debate and voting on resolutions. 
• Minority opinions were encouraged, and important decisions were made after  vigorous debates  and open voting. 
• For instance, the  Non-Cooperation Movement  decision in 1920 and the 1929 resolution condemning the Revolutionary Terrorists’ bomb attack were passed by narrow margins. 
• Even during disagreements, such as the 1942 Quit India resolution  , dissenting voices were respected. 

Commitment to Civil Liberties 

• The national movement was also committed to  civil liberties  , opposing colonial attacks on freedoms like  press  ,  speech  , and  association. 
• Leaders like  Lokamanya Tilak and Gandhiji  emphasized the importance of these freedoms for national development. 
• Jawaharlal Nehru  was a strong advocate for civil liberties, considering them as crucial as  economic equality  and  socialism  . 
• He played a key role in passing the  resolution on fundamental rights  at the Karachi Congress in 1931, which guaranteed freedoms of expression and association. 
• Nehru also helped establish the Indian Civil Liberties Union in 1936 to protect civil liberties. 
• He believed that civil liberties were essential for a nation’s vitality and strength. 

 Limitations of National Movement:

• Secularism and Hindu-Muslim Unity:  Secularism was a fundamental part of the nationalist ideology from the start, with a strong emphasis on Hindu-Muslim unity. 
• Failure to Eradicate Communalism:  The national movement could not eliminate communalism or prevent the partition of the country. This was not due to a deviation from a secular ideology but rather weaknesses in the strategy to combat communalism and a failure to understand its socio-economic and ideological roots. 
• Opposition to Caste Oppression:  The national movement opposed caste oppression and, after 1920, made the abolition of untouchability a core part of its program. However, there were serious ideological flaws, such as the lack of a strong anti-caste ideology. 
• Women’s Liberation:  The cause of women’s liberation was not taken up seriously by the national movement. 
• Recognition of India’s Diversity:  The movement recognized the diverse and undeveloped nature of India, understanding it as a nation-in-the-making. Common subjection to colonial rule was seen as the basis for nation-making, and the movement aimed to structure the nation through a united struggle against colonialism. 
• Political and Ideological Practices:  The political and ideological practices of the movement were deemed crucial in the process of nation-in-the-making. It was understood that unifying the Indian people would require acknowledging regional, religious, caste, ethnic, and linguistic differences. 
• Recognition of Cultural Aspirations:  The cultural aspirations of different linguistic groups were recognized, leading to the Congress organizing its provincial or area committees along linguistic lines from 1921, rather than according to British-created multilingual provinces. 

Economic Vision of National Movement:

• The Indian national movement aimed for a complete economic transformation through modern industrial and agricultural development. 
• Nationalists believed industrialization was essential to overcome poverty, a view supported by figures like Justice Ranade. 
• Gandhiji  had a nuanced view on industrialization. He opposed machines that harmed labor, but valued inventions benefiting all. 
• Gandhiji  supported large-scale industry if it aided human labor and was state-controlled, not privately owned. 
•  Nationalists aimed for self-reliant economic development, free from foreign capital and focused on indigenous science and technology. 
• Foreign capital  was seen as detrimental by nationalists, as it suppressed indigenous growth and gained political influence. 
• Public sector  involvement was crucial for building a modern economy, preventing wealth concentration, and was advocated by figures like Dadabhai Naoroji, Nehru, and Gandhiji. 
• Economic planning  gained acceptance in the late 1930s, with the Congress setting up the National Planning Committee in 1938. 
• During World War II, various plans emerged, including the Bombay Plan by J.R.D. Tata, G.D. Birla, and Sri Ram, emphasizing land reforms and a strong public sector. 
• The national movement's ideology was rooted in  anti-colonialism, anti-Fascism, peace,  and  national independence  . 
• Socialist Orientation: The national movement was pro-poor from the start, with economic critiques linked to mass poverty. 
• Influence of Russian Revolution  : The 1917 Russian Revolution, Gandhiji's emergence, and the rise of left-wing groups in the 1920s and 1930s strengthened this pro-poor orientation. 
• Radical Policies: The movement adopted increasingly radical policies and reforms during various stages of the struggle. 

Major Reforms Demanded by the Indian National Movement

•  Compulsory Primary Education:  Ensuring education for all children. 
•  Lowering Taxation:  Reducing taxes on the poor and middle classes. 
•  Reduction of Salt Tax:  Lowering the tax on salt. 
•  Land Revenue and Rent:  Adjusting land revenue and rent policies. 
•  Relief from Indebtedness:  Providing relief to indebted peasants and offering cheap credit. 
•  Protection of Tenants’ Rights:  Safeguarding the rights of tenants. 
•  Workers’ Rights:  Ensuring a living wage and shorter working hours for workers. 
•  Higher Wages for Government Servants:  Increasing wages for low-paid government employees, including police. 
•  Right to Organize:  Defending the right of workers and peasants to organize. 
•  Protection and Promotion of Village Industries:  Supporting and promoting local village industries. 
•  Promotion of Modern Science and Technical Education:  Advancing modern science and technical education. 
•  Eradication of the Drink Evil:  Addressing and eliminating issues related to alcohol consumption. 
•  Improvement of Social Position of Women:  Enhancing the social status of women, including their rights to work, education, and political equality. 
•  Abolition of Untouchability:  Initiating legal and social measures to abolish untouchability. 
•  Reform of Law and Order Machinery:  Reforming the machinery of law and order.
•  Jawaharlal Nehru  was crucial in promoting the idea of a  socialist India  during the national movement. He believed that political freedom should also mean  economic freedom  for the masses.
• In the 1930s, Nehru criticized the existing nationalist ideology and the dominance of bourgeois thought in the national movement. He called for a new  socialist or Marxist ideology  to help people understand their social conditions scientifically and to guide the Congress in a more  socialist direction  .
• The  1930s  were a good time for socialist ideas, which spread quickly. However, while left-wing and socialist ideas grew significantly, they  did not become the dominant ideology  in the national movement. They did become a basic part of the movement, shifting it leftward and redefining freedom in  socioeconomic terms  .
• By the late  1930s  , the Indian national movement was among the most  radical  of national liberation movements, as seen in Congress resolutions and election manifestoes. The Congress party evolved in a  radical socioeconomic-political direction  , adopting many leftist demands over time, influenced by leftist politics and workers' and peasants' struggles.
• Even the  Congress Right  became anti-imperialist and committed to significant political and economic changes, despite opposing socialism. This shift is evident in the  agrarian policy  of the Congress, which, under leftist and peasant movement pressure, accepted radical reforms such as  rent and revenue reductions  , abolition of feudal dues, and  living wages for agricultural labourers  .
•  The Congress Ministries enacted various tenant protection laws, and by  1945  , the Congress Working Committee endorsed the abolition of landlordism and land reforms benefiting tillers. 
•  Gandhiji  and the Gandhians had a different social outlook. Gandhiji did not agree with a  class analysis  of society or the idea of class struggle. He was also against using violence, even to protect the interests of the poor. 
• Social Transformation Focus:  The individual was committed to fundamental changes in the existing economic and political power structures, with a focus on social transformation. 
• Radical Shift:  Over the 1930s and 1940s, there was a gradual but significant shift towards more radical ideas, including a growing opposition to private property and an emphasis on social and economic equality. 
• Collaboration with Nehru:  In 1933, he aligned with Nehru on the idea that improving the conditions of the masses required a substantial revision of vested interests. 
• Nationalization Advocacy:  He argued for the nationalization of large-scale industries, criticizing capitalism and landlordism for their exploitation of the masses. 
• Critique of Middle Class:  There was a strong critique of the socio-economic role played by the middle classes during this period. 
• Agrarian Radicalism:  A significant development was the shift towards agrarian radicalism, with a focus on land ownership and the rights of workers. 
• Land Ownership Views:  In 1937 and 1942, he asserted that land should belong to those who work it, reflecting a radical stance on land ownership. 
• Peasant Empowerment:  He believed that peasants would seize land themselves, without the need for compensation to landlords, emphasizing the financial impracticality of such compensation. 
• Civil Disobedience Plans:  In discussions about future civil disobedience movements, he envisioned peasants stopping tax payments, making salt against official prohibition, and seizing land, with the possibility of initial chaos but eventual control. 
• Anti-Colonial and Pro-Poor Orientation:  The national movement was grounded in a clear anti-colonial ideology and a vision for a democratic, secular, and socially radical society, focusing on self-reliant economic development. 
•  Popular People’s Movement:  This vision, combined with anti-colonial and pro-poor orientations, helped transform the national movement into a popular people’s movement, appealing to politically awakened and active segments of society.