Structure of Human Language | Psychology for UPSC Optional (Notes) PDF Download

Language, a fundamental aspect of human communication, does not exist in isolation. It is intertwined with various systems within the human mind, which shape and support its existence. The structure and function of language are deeply influenced by these interconnected systems, as language is primarily used to convey thoughts, ideas, and emotions. Furthermore, language is not only influenced by internal cognitive factors but also by the complex social and cultural systems in which it exists. In essence, language pervades all aspects of our lives.

Phonology

• Each language spoken in the world possesses a unique phonological system, which encompasses the sounds used and their relationships with one another. The structure of human language is intricate and sophisticated, especially when it comes to phonology. Phonology delves into the systems and patterns of spoken sounds within a language. 
• It is based on the subconscious knowledge that adult language speakers possess about the sound patterns of their language. Rather than focusing on the physical articulation of speech sounds, phonology deals with the abstract or conceptual aspects of these sounds. 
• For instance, when we refer to the sound [t] in the words "star," "writer," and "butter" as "the same," we are acknowledging their representation in the English phonological system. 
• Although these [t] sounds may have different articulation variations, what truly matters is the distinction between [t] sounds and other sounds like [k], [f], or [b]. These distinctions have significant implications for the meaning conveyed by words. 
• Therefore, the sounds that differentiate words like "tar," "car," "far," and "bar" must be distinct and meaningful, regardless of the particular vocal tract used to pronounce them.

Morphology

• Morphology, a branch of linguistics, explores the connection between form and meaning within and between words. It focuses on the study of word forms, which can encompass both spoken and signed languages. 
• While form typically refers to the phonological representation of a word, it can also manifest in sign languages through the shape and movement of hands. Morphologists analyze the components of words, their meanings, and the potential combinations of words across different languages. 
• Both complete words, such as "sleep," and parts of words, like the "past" meaning associated with the suffix -ed in words like "crimped," can convey meaning through their forms. 
• For instance, when the plural ending -s is added to the word "cat," its morphology changes to "cats," indicating the plurality of the word. Morphology also encompasses the adaptation of one word form to match the characteristics of another term.

Semantics

Semantics is the study of word, phrase, and sentence meaning. It aims to focus on the traditional meanings of words shared by literate speakers of a language, rather than personal interpretations. Semantics investigates what all language users understand when confronted with the meaning of a word, phrase, or sentence. By analyzing semantics, we can gain insights into the linguistic meaning that underlies our comprehension. It delves into the relationship between words and the concepts they represent.

Syntax

• Syntax, the study of a language's organization and arrangement of sentence components, plays a crucial role in understanding linguistic structure. The term "syntax" originates from the Greek words meaning "a putting together" or "arrangement." 
• In the past, syntax primarily focused on describing the linear order of sentence components. However, recent research has shifted towards uncovering the underlying rule systems that generate sentences. 
• Linguists strive to follow the "all and only" criterion, which means analyzing all grammatically sound phrases and sentences in a given language and excluding ill-formed structures. Syntax sets rules for constructing well-formed structures while ensuring logical application.

Pragmatics

Pragmatics, an essential aspect of language, revolves around interpreting what speakers mean to convey in a particular context. It acknowledges the importance of understanding not only the literal meaning of words but also the implied or intended meaning.
Pragmatics examines the "invisible" aspects of meaning, exploring how we grasp intended messages even when they are not explicitly expressed. Successful communication relies on shared assumptions and expectations among speakers or writers. By examining these assumptions and expectations, we can gain a deeper understanding of how language facilitates communication beyond its literal content.

Functions of Language

Language serves multiple functions and plays various roles in human communication. Linguists have sought to comprehend and explain the purposes of language. Roman Jakobson, a prominent linguist, identified six fundamental functions of language that characterize effective verbal communication:

• Referential Function: This function primarily focuses on conveying information. It involves describing circumstances, objects, and mental states.
• Expressive Function: The expressive function involves the communication of sentiments or viewpoints, aiming to evoke emotions in the listener or reader. This function can be observed even in private moments of self-expression.
  
• Directive Function: The directive function directly engages the recipient of the message, aiming to influence or control their actions. It is employed in demands, requests, and instructions, often using vocatives and imperatives.
  
• Phatic Function: The phatic function emphasizes language's role in social interaction. It encompasses pleasantries and casual conversations, such as greetings or remarks about the weather.
  
• Poetic Function: The poetic function is dedicated to linguistic aesthetics. It is observed in poetry and slogans, where the message's form and arrangement play a significant role in conveying meaning.
  
• Metalinguistic Function: The metalinguistic function refers to using language to discuss language itself. In this very article, we are utilizing the metalinguistic function to explore the structure of human language.
  

It is important to note that language typically serves multiple functions simultaneously, and most types of speech integrate various functions within a single utterance.

Conclusion

Language is a complex and multifaceted phenomenon deeply rooted in human communication. Its nature and scope are influenced by a variety of factors, including physiological, environmental, social, and need-based aspects. As the complexity of the information we convey expands, the systems responsible for generating language must adapt accordingly. Species that rely on complex social interactions develop communication systems capable of meeting the demands arising from such interactions. Language is an ever-evolving tool that shapes and is shaped by our cognitive processes, social interactions, and cultural contexts, allowing us to express our thoughts, emotions, and ideas.