TN History Textbook: Educational and Social Reforms | Old & New NCERTs for IAS Preparation (Must Read) - UPSC PDF Download

 Page 1


Language and Education Policy
Initially, the East India Company did not evince any particular
interest in matters of education. Although the British had captured
Bengal in 1757, yet the responsibility of imparting education remained
only in Indian hands. The study of ancient texts written in Arabic,
Persian and Sanskrit still continued. In 1781, Warren Hastings
established a Madrasa in Calcutta to encourage the study of Muslim
laws along with Arabic and Persian languages.
A decade later in 1791 due to the sincere efforts of the British
resident, Jonathan Duncan, a Sanskrit College was established to
promote the study of Hindu laws and philosophy in Banaras.
Therefore, it must be contended that during the first three decades
of the 19th century, the development of education took place only
through the traditional institutions.
LESSON 8
EDUCATIONAL AND SOCIAL REFORMS
Learning Objectives
Students will understand
1. The language and educational policies of the British.
2. Debates over the introduction of English education
in India.
3. Introduction of social reforms in India.
4. Legislation on women.
5. Struggle against the Caste system and the legislation
relating to abolition of caste discrimination.
76
Page 2


Language and Education Policy
Initially, the East India Company did not evince any particular
interest in matters of education. Although the British had captured
Bengal in 1757, yet the responsibility of imparting education remained
only in Indian hands. The study of ancient texts written in Arabic,
Persian and Sanskrit still continued. In 1781, Warren Hastings
established a Madrasa in Calcutta to encourage the study of Muslim
laws along with Arabic and Persian languages.
A decade later in 1791 due to the sincere efforts of the British
resident, Jonathan Duncan, a Sanskrit College was established to
promote the study of Hindu laws and philosophy in Banaras.
Therefore, it must be contended that during the first three decades
of the 19th century, the development of education took place only
through the traditional institutions.
LESSON 8
EDUCATIONAL AND SOCIAL REFORMS
Learning Objectives
Students will understand
1. The language and educational policies of the British.
2. Debates over the introduction of English education
in India.
3. Introduction of social reforms in India.
4. Legislation on women.
5. Struggle against the Caste system and the legislation
relating to abolition of caste discrimination.
76
It is apparent from the government and Church records that
the state of oriental learning at the time of the establishment of the
Company’s rule in Bengal, there were about 80,000 traditional
institutions of learning in Bengal alone, which means that there was
at least one institution for every four hundred people in that province.
Different educational surveys of Madras, Bombay and Punjab also
demonstrate similar facts. There was at least one school in every
village of India at that time.
The East India Company began to adopt a dual policy in the
sphere of education.  It discouraged the prevalent system of oriental
education and gave importance to western education and English
language.  The Charter Act of 1813 adopted a provision to spend
one lakh rupees per annum for the spread of education in India.
Although there was a prolonged debate pertaining to education
during the course of a general discussion on the Act of 1813 in the
British Parliament, yet the matter continued to generate debate for
the next 20 years.  Consequently, not even a single penny out of the
allocated funds could be spent on education.
The contemporary British scholars were divided into two groups
on the issue of development of education in India.  One group, called
the Orientalists, advocated the promotion of oriental subjects through
Indian languages.  The other group, called the Anglicists, argued
the cause of western sciences and literature in the medium of English
language.
In 1829, after assuming the office of the Governor-General of
India, Lord William Bentinck, emphasized on the medium of English
language in Indian education.  In the beginning of 1835, the 10
members of the General Committee of Public Instruction were clearly
divided into two equal groups.  Five members including the Chairman
of the committee Lord Macaulay were in favour of adopting English
as medium of public instruction whereas the other five were in favour
of oriental languages.
The stalemate continued till 2 February 1835
when the Chairman of the committee, Lord
Macaulay announced his famous Minute
advocating the Anglicist point of view.
Consequently, despite fierce opposition from all
quarters, Bentinck got the resolution passed on 7
March 1835 which declared that henceforth,
government funds would be utilized for the
promotion of western literature and science
through the medium of English language.
In 1854, Sir Charles Wood sent a comprehensive dispatch as
a grand plan on education. The establishment of departments of public
instructions in five provinces and introduction of the pattern of grants
in aid to encourage private participation in the field of education were
recommended.  Besides, the dispatch also laid emphasis on the
establishment of schools for technical education, teacher and women
education. Over and above all these, the dispatch recommended the
establishment of one University each in Calcutta, Bombay and Madras,
on the model of the London University. Consequently, within the next
few years, the Indian education became rapidly westernized.
Social Policies and Legislation
In the beginning, the British interest was limited to trade and
earning profits from economic exploitation.  Therefore, they did not
evince any interest in taking the issue of social or religious reforms.
They were apprehensive of interfering with the social and religious
customs and institutions of the Indians because of the fear that they
might lose trade advantage. Thus, they adopted the policy of extreme
precaution and indifference towards social issues in India. The one
LORD MACAULAY 
77 78
Page 3


Language and Education Policy
Initially, the East India Company did not evince any particular
interest in matters of education. Although the British had captured
Bengal in 1757, yet the responsibility of imparting education remained
only in Indian hands. The study of ancient texts written in Arabic,
Persian and Sanskrit still continued. In 1781, Warren Hastings
established a Madrasa in Calcutta to encourage the study of Muslim
laws along with Arabic and Persian languages.
A decade later in 1791 due to the sincere efforts of the British
resident, Jonathan Duncan, a Sanskrit College was established to
promote the study of Hindu laws and philosophy in Banaras.
Therefore, it must be contended that during the first three decades
of the 19th century, the development of education took place only
through the traditional institutions.
LESSON 8
EDUCATIONAL AND SOCIAL REFORMS
Learning Objectives
Students will understand
1. The language and educational policies of the British.
2. Debates over the introduction of English education
in India.
3. Introduction of social reforms in India.
4. Legislation on women.
5. Struggle against the Caste system and the legislation
relating to abolition of caste discrimination.
76
It is apparent from the government and Church records that
the state of oriental learning at the time of the establishment of the
Company’s rule in Bengal, there were about 80,000 traditional
institutions of learning in Bengal alone, which means that there was
at least one institution for every four hundred people in that province.
Different educational surveys of Madras, Bombay and Punjab also
demonstrate similar facts. There was at least one school in every
village of India at that time.
The East India Company began to adopt a dual policy in the
sphere of education.  It discouraged the prevalent system of oriental
education and gave importance to western education and English
language.  The Charter Act of 1813 adopted a provision to spend
one lakh rupees per annum for the spread of education in India.
Although there was a prolonged debate pertaining to education
during the course of a general discussion on the Act of 1813 in the
British Parliament, yet the matter continued to generate debate for
the next 20 years.  Consequently, not even a single penny out of the
allocated funds could be spent on education.
The contemporary British scholars were divided into two groups
on the issue of development of education in India.  One group, called
the Orientalists, advocated the promotion of oriental subjects through
Indian languages.  The other group, called the Anglicists, argued
the cause of western sciences and literature in the medium of English
language.
In 1829, after assuming the office of the Governor-General of
India, Lord William Bentinck, emphasized on the medium of English
language in Indian education.  In the beginning of 1835, the 10
members of the General Committee of Public Instruction were clearly
divided into two equal groups.  Five members including the Chairman
of the committee Lord Macaulay were in favour of adopting English
as medium of public instruction whereas the other five were in favour
of oriental languages.
The stalemate continued till 2 February 1835
when the Chairman of the committee, Lord
Macaulay announced his famous Minute
advocating the Anglicist point of view.
Consequently, despite fierce opposition from all
quarters, Bentinck got the resolution passed on 7
March 1835 which declared that henceforth,
government funds would be utilized for the
promotion of western literature and science
through the medium of English language.
In 1854, Sir Charles Wood sent a comprehensive dispatch as
a grand plan on education. The establishment of departments of public
instructions in five provinces and introduction of the pattern of grants
in aid to encourage private participation in the field of education were
recommended.  Besides, the dispatch also laid emphasis on the
establishment of schools for technical education, teacher and women
education. Over and above all these, the dispatch recommended the
establishment of one University each in Calcutta, Bombay and Madras,
on the model of the London University. Consequently, within the next
few years, the Indian education became rapidly westernized.
Social Policies and Legislation
In the beginning, the British interest was limited to trade and
earning profits from economic exploitation.  Therefore, they did not
evince any interest in taking the issue of social or religious reforms.
They were apprehensive of interfering with the social and religious
customs and institutions of the Indians because of the fear that they
might lose trade advantage. Thus, they adopted the policy of extreme
precaution and indifference towards social issues in India. The one
LORD MACAULAY 
77 78
reason why they indulged in criticizing the customs and traditions of
India was to generate a feeling of inferiority complex among the
Indians.
However, in the mid-19th century the social and religious
movements, launched in India, attracted the attention of the
Company’s administration towards the country’s social evils. The
propaganda carried out by the Christian missionaries also stirred the
minds of the educated Indians.  Western thought and education and
views expressed in different newspapers and magazines had their
own impact.  Some of the British administrators like Lord William
Bentinck had evinced personal interest in the matter.  There were
primarily two areas in which laws were enacted, laws pertaining to
women emancipation and the caste system.
Social Laws Concerning Women
The condition of women, by the time the British established
their rule, was not encouraging. Several evil practices such as the
practice of Sati, the Purdah system, child marriage, female infanticide,
bride price and polygamy had made their life quite miserable.  The
place of women had come to be confined to the four walls of her
home.  The doors of education had been shut for them.  From economic
point of view also her status was miserable.  There was no social
and economic equality between a man and woman.  A Hindu woman
was not entitled to inherit any property.  Thus, by and large, she was
completely dependent on men.
During the 19th and 20th centuries some laws were enacted
with the sincere efforts of social reformers, humanists and some
British administrators to improve the condition of women in Indian
society.  The first effort in this direction was the enactment of law
against the practice of Sati during the administration of Lord William
Bentinck.
Female Infanticide
Female infanticide was another inhuman practice afflicting the
19
th
 century Indian society.  It was particularly in vogue in Rajputana,
Punjab and the North Western Provinces.  Colonel Todd, Johnson
Duncan, Malcolm and other British administrators have discussed
about this evil custom in detail.  Factors such as family pride, the
fear of not finding a suitable match for the girl child and the hesitation
to bend before the prospective in-laws were some of the major reasons
responsible for this practice.  Therefore, immediately after birth, the
female infants were being killed either by feeding them with opium
or by strangulating or by purposely neglecting them.  Some laws were
enacted against this practice in 1795, 1802 and 1804 and then in
1870.  However, the practice could not be completely eradicated
only through legal measures.  Gradually, this evil practice came to be
done away through education and public opinion.
Widow Remarriage
There are many historical evidences to suggest that widow
remarriage enjoyed social sanction during ancient period in India. In
course of time the practice ceased to prevail increasing the number
of widows to lakhs during the 19th century.  Therefore, it became
incumbent on the part of the social reformers to make sincere efforts
to popularize widow remarriage by writing in newspapers and
contemporary journals.
Prominent among these reformers were Raja Rammohan  Roy
and Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar. They carried out large scale
campaigns in this regard mainly through books, pamphlets and
petitions with scores of signatures.  In July 1856, J.P. Grant, a member
of the Governor-General’s Council finally tabled a bill in support of
the widow remarriage, which was passed on 13 July 1856  and came
to be called the Widow Remarriage Act, 1856.
79 80
Page 4


Language and Education Policy
Initially, the East India Company did not evince any particular
interest in matters of education. Although the British had captured
Bengal in 1757, yet the responsibility of imparting education remained
only in Indian hands. The study of ancient texts written in Arabic,
Persian and Sanskrit still continued. In 1781, Warren Hastings
established a Madrasa in Calcutta to encourage the study of Muslim
laws along with Arabic and Persian languages.
A decade later in 1791 due to the sincere efforts of the British
resident, Jonathan Duncan, a Sanskrit College was established to
promote the study of Hindu laws and philosophy in Banaras.
Therefore, it must be contended that during the first three decades
of the 19th century, the development of education took place only
through the traditional institutions.
LESSON 8
EDUCATIONAL AND SOCIAL REFORMS
Learning Objectives
Students will understand
1. The language and educational policies of the British.
2. Debates over the introduction of English education
in India.
3. Introduction of social reforms in India.
4. Legislation on women.
5. Struggle against the Caste system and the legislation
relating to abolition of caste discrimination.
76
It is apparent from the government and Church records that
the state of oriental learning at the time of the establishment of the
Company’s rule in Bengal, there were about 80,000 traditional
institutions of learning in Bengal alone, which means that there was
at least one institution for every four hundred people in that province.
Different educational surveys of Madras, Bombay and Punjab also
demonstrate similar facts. There was at least one school in every
village of India at that time.
The East India Company began to adopt a dual policy in the
sphere of education.  It discouraged the prevalent system of oriental
education and gave importance to western education and English
language.  The Charter Act of 1813 adopted a provision to spend
one lakh rupees per annum for the spread of education in India.
Although there was a prolonged debate pertaining to education
during the course of a general discussion on the Act of 1813 in the
British Parliament, yet the matter continued to generate debate for
the next 20 years.  Consequently, not even a single penny out of the
allocated funds could be spent on education.
The contemporary British scholars were divided into two groups
on the issue of development of education in India.  One group, called
the Orientalists, advocated the promotion of oriental subjects through
Indian languages.  The other group, called the Anglicists, argued
the cause of western sciences and literature in the medium of English
language.
In 1829, after assuming the office of the Governor-General of
India, Lord William Bentinck, emphasized on the medium of English
language in Indian education.  In the beginning of 1835, the 10
members of the General Committee of Public Instruction were clearly
divided into two equal groups.  Five members including the Chairman
of the committee Lord Macaulay were in favour of adopting English
as medium of public instruction whereas the other five were in favour
of oriental languages.
The stalemate continued till 2 February 1835
when the Chairman of the committee, Lord
Macaulay announced his famous Minute
advocating the Anglicist point of view.
Consequently, despite fierce opposition from all
quarters, Bentinck got the resolution passed on 7
March 1835 which declared that henceforth,
government funds would be utilized for the
promotion of western literature and science
through the medium of English language.
In 1854, Sir Charles Wood sent a comprehensive dispatch as
a grand plan on education. The establishment of departments of public
instructions in five provinces and introduction of the pattern of grants
in aid to encourage private participation in the field of education were
recommended.  Besides, the dispatch also laid emphasis on the
establishment of schools for technical education, teacher and women
education. Over and above all these, the dispatch recommended the
establishment of one University each in Calcutta, Bombay and Madras,
on the model of the London University. Consequently, within the next
few years, the Indian education became rapidly westernized.
Social Policies and Legislation
In the beginning, the British interest was limited to trade and
earning profits from economic exploitation.  Therefore, they did not
evince any interest in taking the issue of social or religious reforms.
They were apprehensive of interfering with the social and religious
customs and institutions of the Indians because of the fear that they
might lose trade advantage. Thus, they adopted the policy of extreme
precaution and indifference towards social issues in India. The one
LORD MACAULAY 
77 78
reason why they indulged in criticizing the customs and traditions of
India was to generate a feeling of inferiority complex among the
Indians.
However, in the mid-19th century the social and religious
movements, launched in India, attracted the attention of the
Company’s administration towards the country’s social evils. The
propaganda carried out by the Christian missionaries also stirred the
minds of the educated Indians.  Western thought and education and
views expressed in different newspapers and magazines had their
own impact.  Some of the British administrators like Lord William
Bentinck had evinced personal interest in the matter.  There were
primarily two areas in which laws were enacted, laws pertaining to
women emancipation and the caste system.
Social Laws Concerning Women
The condition of women, by the time the British established
their rule, was not encouraging. Several evil practices such as the
practice of Sati, the Purdah system, child marriage, female infanticide,
bride price and polygamy had made their life quite miserable.  The
place of women had come to be confined to the four walls of her
home.  The doors of education had been shut for them.  From economic
point of view also her status was miserable.  There was no social
and economic equality between a man and woman.  A Hindu woman
was not entitled to inherit any property.  Thus, by and large, she was
completely dependent on men.
During the 19th and 20th centuries some laws were enacted
with the sincere efforts of social reformers, humanists and some
British administrators to improve the condition of women in Indian
society.  The first effort in this direction was the enactment of law
against the practice of Sati during the administration of Lord William
Bentinck.
Female Infanticide
Female infanticide was another inhuman practice afflicting the
19
th
 century Indian society.  It was particularly in vogue in Rajputana,
Punjab and the North Western Provinces.  Colonel Todd, Johnson
Duncan, Malcolm and other British administrators have discussed
about this evil custom in detail.  Factors such as family pride, the
fear of not finding a suitable match for the girl child and the hesitation
to bend before the prospective in-laws were some of the major reasons
responsible for this practice.  Therefore, immediately after birth, the
female infants were being killed either by feeding them with opium
or by strangulating or by purposely neglecting them.  Some laws were
enacted against this practice in 1795, 1802 and 1804 and then in
1870.  However, the practice could not be completely eradicated
only through legal measures.  Gradually, this evil practice came to be
done away through education and public opinion.
Widow Remarriage
There are many historical evidences to suggest that widow
remarriage enjoyed social sanction during ancient period in India. In
course of time the practice ceased to prevail increasing the number
of widows to lakhs during the 19th century.  Therefore, it became
incumbent on the part of the social reformers to make sincere efforts
to popularize widow remarriage by writing in newspapers and
contemporary journals.
Prominent among these reformers were Raja Rammohan  Roy
and Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar. They carried out large scale
campaigns in this regard mainly through books, pamphlets and
petitions with scores of signatures.  In July 1856, J.P. Grant, a member
of the Governor-General’s Council finally tabled a bill in support of
the widow remarriage, which was passed on 13 July 1856  and came
to be called the Widow Remarriage Act, 1856.
79 80
Child Marriage
The practice of child marriage was another social stigma for
the women.  In November 1870, the Indian Reforms Association
was started with the efforts of Keshav Chandra Sen. A journal called
Mahapap Bal Vivah (Child marriage: The
Cardinal Sin) was also launched with the efforts of B.M.
Malabari to fight against child marriage. In 1846, the minimum
marriageable age for a girl was only 10 years.
 In 1891, through the enactment of the Age of Consent Act,
this was raised to 12 years.  In 1930, through the Sharda Act, the
minimum age was raised to 14 years.  After independence, the limit
was raised to 18 years in 1978.
Purdah System
Similarly, voices were raised against the practice of Purdah during
the 19th and 20th century.  The condition of women among the peasantry
was relatively better in this respect.  Purdah was not so much prevalent
in Southern India.  Through the large scale participation of women in the
national freedom movement, the system disappeared without any specific
legislative measure taken against it.
Struggle against the Caste System and the related Legislation
Next to the issue of women emancipation, the caste system
became the second most important issue of social reforms. In fact,
the system of caste had become the bane of Indian society.
The caste system was primarily based on the fourfold division
of society viz.  Brahmins, Kshatriya, Vaishyas and Shudras.  On
account of their degradation in their social status, the Shudras were
subjected to all kinds of social discrimination. In the beginning of the
19th century the castes of India had been split into innumerable sub-
castes on the basis of birth.
In the meantime, a new social consciousness also dawned
among the Indians.  Abolition of’ untouchability became a major issue
of the 19th century social and religious reform movements in the
country. Mahatma Gandhi made the removal of untouchability a part
of his constructive programme. He brought out a paper, The Harijan,
and also organised the Harijan Sevak Sangh.
Dr. Bhimrao Ambedkar
dedicated his entire life for the
welfare of the downtrodden.  In
Bombay, he formed a Bahiskrit
Hitkarini Sabha in July 1924 for this
purpose.  Later, he also organised
the Akhil Bharatiya Dalit Varg
Sabha to fight against  caste
oppression. Jyotirao Phule in Western India and Shri Narayana Guru
in Kerala respectively established the Satya Sadhak Samaj and the
Shri Narayana Dharma Partipalana Yogam to include self-esteem
among the downtrodden.
In the Madras Presidency also the beginning
of 20th century  witnessed the rise of Self-respect
Movement of Periyar E.V.R. In order to eradicate
this evil practice many other individual and institutional
efforts were also made. These movements were
directed mainly in removing the disabilities suffered
by Harijans in regard to drawing of water from public
wells, getting entry into temples and admission into
schools.
Dr. AMBEDKAR 
JYOTIRAO PHULE 
NARAYANA GURU 
81 82
Page 5


Language and Education Policy
Initially, the East India Company did not evince any particular
interest in matters of education. Although the British had captured
Bengal in 1757, yet the responsibility of imparting education remained
only in Indian hands. The study of ancient texts written in Arabic,
Persian and Sanskrit still continued. In 1781, Warren Hastings
established a Madrasa in Calcutta to encourage the study of Muslim
laws along with Arabic and Persian languages.
A decade later in 1791 due to the sincere efforts of the British
resident, Jonathan Duncan, a Sanskrit College was established to
promote the study of Hindu laws and philosophy in Banaras.
Therefore, it must be contended that during the first three decades
of the 19th century, the development of education took place only
through the traditional institutions.
LESSON 8
EDUCATIONAL AND SOCIAL REFORMS
Learning Objectives
Students will understand
1. The language and educational policies of the British.
2. Debates over the introduction of English education
in India.
3. Introduction of social reforms in India.
4. Legislation on women.
5. Struggle against the Caste system and the legislation
relating to abolition of caste discrimination.
76
It is apparent from the government and Church records that
the state of oriental learning at the time of the establishment of the
Company’s rule in Bengal, there were about 80,000 traditional
institutions of learning in Bengal alone, which means that there was
at least one institution for every four hundred people in that province.
Different educational surveys of Madras, Bombay and Punjab also
demonstrate similar facts. There was at least one school in every
village of India at that time.
The East India Company began to adopt a dual policy in the
sphere of education.  It discouraged the prevalent system of oriental
education and gave importance to western education and English
language.  The Charter Act of 1813 adopted a provision to spend
one lakh rupees per annum for the spread of education in India.
Although there was a prolonged debate pertaining to education
during the course of a general discussion on the Act of 1813 in the
British Parliament, yet the matter continued to generate debate for
the next 20 years.  Consequently, not even a single penny out of the
allocated funds could be spent on education.
The contemporary British scholars were divided into two groups
on the issue of development of education in India.  One group, called
the Orientalists, advocated the promotion of oriental subjects through
Indian languages.  The other group, called the Anglicists, argued
the cause of western sciences and literature in the medium of English
language.
In 1829, after assuming the office of the Governor-General of
India, Lord William Bentinck, emphasized on the medium of English
language in Indian education.  In the beginning of 1835, the 10
members of the General Committee of Public Instruction were clearly
divided into two equal groups.  Five members including the Chairman
of the committee Lord Macaulay were in favour of adopting English
as medium of public instruction whereas the other five were in favour
of oriental languages.
The stalemate continued till 2 February 1835
when the Chairman of the committee, Lord
Macaulay announced his famous Minute
advocating the Anglicist point of view.
Consequently, despite fierce opposition from all
quarters, Bentinck got the resolution passed on 7
March 1835 which declared that henceforth,
government funds would be utilized for the
promotion of western literature and science
through the medium of English language.
In 1854, Sir Charles Wood sent a comprehensive dispatch as
a grand plan on education. The establishment of departments of public
instructions in five provinces and introduction of the pattern of grants
in aid to encourage private participation in the field of education were
recommended.  Besides, the dispatch also laid emphasis on the
establishment of schools for technical education, teacher and women
education. Over and above all these, the dispatch recommended the
establishment of one University each in Calcutta, Bombay and Madras,
on the model of the London University. Consequently, within the next
few years, the Indian education became rapidly westernized.
Social Policies and Legislation
In the beginning, the British interest was limited to trade and
earning profits from economic exploitation.  Therefore, they did not
evince any interest in taking the issue of social or religious reforms.
They were apprehensive of interfering with the social and religious
customs and institutions of the Indians because of the fear that they
might lose trade advantage. Thus, they adopted the policy of extreme
precaution and indifference towards social issues in India. The one
LORD MACAULAY 
77 78
reason why they indulged in criticizing the customs and traditions of
India was to generate a feeling of inferiority complex among the
Indians.
However, in the mid-19th century the social and religious
movements, launched in India, attracted the attention of the
Company’s administration towards the country’s social evils. The
propaganda carried out by the Christian missionaries also stirred the
minds of the educated Indians.  Western thought and education and
views expressed in different newspapers and magazines had their
own impact.  Some of the British administrators like Lord William
Bentinck had evinced personal interest in the matter.  There were
primarily two areas in which laws were enacted, laws pertaining to
women emancipation and the caste system.
Social Laws Concerning Women
The condition of women, by the time the British established
their rule, was not encouraging. Several evil practices such as the
practice of Sati, the Purdah system, child marriage, female infanticide,
bride price and polygamy had made their life quite miserable.  The
place of women had come to be confined to the four walls of her
home.  The doors of education had been shut for them.  From economic
point of view also her status was miserable.  There was no social
and economic equality between a man and woman.  A Hindu woman
was not entitled to inherit any property.  Thus, by and large, she was
completely dependent on men.
During the 19th and 20th centuries some laws were enacted
with the sincere efforts of social reformers, humanists and some
British administrators to improve the condition of women in Indian
society.  The first effort in this direction was the enactment of law
against the practice of Sati during the administration of Lord William
Bentinck.
Female Infanticide
Female infanticide was another inhuman practice afflicting the
19
th
 century Indian society.  It was particularly in vogue in Rajputana,
Punjab and the North Western Provinces.  Colonel Todd, Johnson
Duncan, Malcolm and other British administrators have discussed
about this evil custom in detail.  Factors such as family pride, the
fear of not finding a suitable match for the girl child and the hesitation
to bend before the prospective in-laws were some of the major reasons
responsible for this practice.  Therefore, immediately after birth, the
female infants were being killed either by feeding them with opium
or by strangulating or by purposely neglecting them.  Some laws were
enacted against this practice in 1795, 1802 and 1804 and then in
1870.  However, the practice could not be completely eradicated
only through legal measures.  Gradually, this evil practice came to be
done away through education and public opinion.
Widow Remarriage
There are many historical evidences to suggest that widow
remarriage enjoyed social sanction during ancient period in India. In
course of time the practice ceased to prevail increasing the number
of widows to lakhs during the 19th century.  Therefore, it became
incumbent on the part of the social reformers to make sincere efforts
to popularize widow remarriage by writing in newspapers and
contemporary journals.
Prominent among these reformers were Raja Rammohan  Roy
and Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar. They carried out large scale
campaigns in this regard mainly through books, pamphlets and
petitions with scores of signatures.  In July 1856, J.P. Grant, a member
of the Governor-General’s Council finally tabled a bill in support of
the widow remarriage, which was passed on 13 July 1856  and came
to be called the Widow Remarriage Act, 1856.
79 80
Child Marriage
The practice of child marriage was another social stigma for
the women.  In November 1870, the Indian Reforms Association
was started with the efforts of Keshav Chandra Sen. A journal called
Mahapap Bal Vivah (Child marriage: The
Cardinal Sin) was also launched with the efforts of B.M.
Malabari to fight against child marriage. In 1846, the minimum
marriageable age for a girl was only 10 years.
 In 1891, through the enactment of the Age of Consent Act,
this was raised to 12 years.  In 1930, through the Sharda Act, the
minimum age was raised to 14 years.  After independence, the limit
was raised to 18 years in 1978.
Purdah System
Similarly, voices were raised against the practice of Purdah during
the 19th and 20th century.  The condition of women among the peasantry
was relatively better in this respect.  Purdah was not so much prevalent
in Southern India.  Through the large scale participation of women in the
national freedom movement, the system disappeared without any specific
legislative measure taken against it.
Struggle against the Caste System and the related Legislation
Next to the issue of women emancipation, the caste system
became the second most important issue of social reforms. In fact,
the system of caste had become the bane of Indian society.
The caste system was primarily based on the fourfold division
of society viz.  Brahmins, Kshatriya, Vaishyas and Shudras.  On
account of their degradation in their social status, the Shudras were
subjected to all kinds of social discrimination. In the beginning of the
19th century the castes of India had been split into innumerable sub-
castes on the basis of birth.
In the meantime, a new social consciousness also dawned
among the Indians.  Abolition of’ untouchability became a major issue
of the 19th century social and religious reform movements in the
country. Mahatma Gandhi made the removal of untouchability a part
of his constructive programme. He brought out a paper, The Harijan,
and also organised the Harijan Sevak Sangh.
Dr. Bhimrao Ambedkar
dedicated his entire life for the
welfare of the downtrodden.  In
Bombay, he formed a Bahiskrit
Hitkarini Sabha in July 1924 for this
purpose.  Later, he also organised
the Akhil Bharatiya Dalit Varg
Sabha to fight against  caste
oppression. Jyotirao Phule in Western India and Shri Narayana Guru
in Kerala respectively established the Satya Sadhak Samaj and the
Shri Narayana Dharma Partipalana Yogam to include self-esteem
among the downtrodden.
In the Madras Presidency also the beginning
of 20th century  witnessed the rise of Self-respect
Movement of Periyar E.V.R. In order to eradicate
this evil practice many other individual and institutional
efforts were also made. These movements were
directed mainly in removing the disabilities suffered
by Harijans in regard to drawing of water from public
wells, getting entry into temples and admission into
schools.
Dr. AMBEDKAR 
JYOTIRAO PHULE 
NARAYANA GURU 
81 82
MODEL QUESTIONS
I. Choose the correct answer.
1. Jonathan Duncan established a Sanskrit college at
(a) Madras (b) Bombay
(c) Calcutta (d) Banaras
2. The Widow Remarriage Act was passed in the year
(a) 1846 (b) 1856
(c) 1870 (d) 1891
II. Fill in the blanks.
1. The Sarada Act raised the minimum marriageable age for girls
to …… years.
2. The Bahiskrit Hitkarini Sabha was formed by …..
3. The Macaulay’s Minute was announced in the year ……
III. Match the following.
1. Harijan Sevak Sangh a. Narayana Guru
2. Satya Shodak Samaj b. Periyar E.V.R.
3. Narayana Dharma
Paripalana Yogam c. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar
4. Self Respect Movement d. Mahatma Gandhi
5. Ahila Bharatiya Dalit
Varg Sabha e. Jyotirao Phule
Learning Outcome
The students should be able to explain
1. The system of education prevalent in India before the advent
of the British.
2. The Company’s policy towards educational development in
India.
3. The debates between the Orientalists and Anglicists
relating to the introduction of western education and the
language of English.
4. Macaulay’s Minute on Education and the importance of
Woods Despatch.
5. Legislation relating to the abolition of social evils such as
the practice of Sati, female Infanticide.
6. The position of women in Indian society and the role of
reformers in the emancipation of women and the related
legislation.
7. The measures taken to the eradication of discrimination
under the caste system.
83 84