TN History Textbook: Pre Historic India and The Harappan Culture | Old & New NCERTs for IAS Preparation (Must Read) - UPSC PDF Download

 Page 1


11 10
The history of human settlements in India goes back to
prehistoric times. No written records are available for the pre-
historic period. However, plenty of archaeological remains are found
in different parts of India to reconstruct the history of this period.
They include the stone tools, pottery, artifacts and metal implements
used by pre-historic people. The development of archaeology helps
much to understand the life and culture of the people who lived in
this period.
In India, the prehistoric period is divided into the Paleolithic
(Old Stone Age), Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age), Neolithic (New
Stone Age) and the Metal Age. However, these periods were not
uniform throughout the Indian subcontinent. The dating of the pre-
historic period is done scientifically.  The technique of radio-carbon
dating is commonly used for this purpose. It is based on measuring
the loss of carbon in organic materials over a period of time. Another
dating method is known as dendro-chronology. It refers to the
LESSON 2
PRE-HISTORIC INDIA AND
THE HARAPPAN CULTURE
Learning Objectives
Students will acquire knowledge about
1. The Pre-historic period.
2. Origin and evolution of the Harappan Civilization.
3. Socio-economic condition of the Harappan people.
4. Cultural life of the Harappans.
5. The Decline of the Harappan Civilization.
Page 2


11 10
The history of human settlements in India goes back to
prehistoric times. No written records are available for the pre-
historic period. However, plenty of archaeological remains are found
in different parts of India to reconstruct the history of this period.
They include the stone tools, pottery, artifacts and metal implements
used by pre-historic people. The development of archaeology helps
much to understand the life and culture of the people who lived in
this period.
In India, the prehistoric period is divided into the Paleolithic
(Old Stone Age), Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age), Neolithic (New
Stone Age) and the Metal Age. However, these periods were not
uniform throughout the Indian subcontinent. The dating of the pre-
historic period is done scientifically.  The technique of radio-carbon
dating is commonly used for this purpose. It is based on measuring
the loss of carbon in organic materials over a period of time. Another
dating method is known as dendro-chronology. It refers to the
LESSON 2
PRE-HISTORIC INDIA AND
THE HARAPPAN CULTURE
Learning Objectives
Students will acquire knowledge about
1. The Pre-historic period.
2. Origin and evolution of the Harappan Civilization.
3. Socio-economic condition of the Harappan people.
4. Cultural life of the Harappans.
5. The Decline of the Harappan Civilization.
13 12
number of tree rings in wood. By counting the number of tree rings
in the wood, the date of the wood is arrived at.
Paleolithic or Old Stone Age
The Old Stone Age sites are widely found in various parts of
the Indian subcontinent. These sites are generally located near water
sources. Several rock shelters and caves used by the Paleolithic
people are scattered across the subcontinent. They also lived rarely
in huts made of leaves. Some of the famous sites of Old Stone Age
in India are:
a. The Soan valley and Potwar Plateau on the northwest India.
b. The Siwalik hills on the north India.
c. Bhimpetka in Madhya Pradesh.
d. Adamgarh hill in Narmada valley.
e. Kurnool in Andhra Pradesh and
f. Attirampakkam near Chennai.
In the Old Stone Age, food was obtained by hunting animals
and gathering edible plants and tubers. Therefore, these people are
called as hunter-gatherers. They used stone tools, hand-sized and
flaked-off large pebbles for hunting
animals. Stone implements are made of a
hard rock known as quartzite. Large
pebbles are often found in river terraces.
The hunting of large animals would have
required the combined effort of a group
of people with large stone axes. We have
little knowledge about their language and
communication. Their way of life became modified with the passage
of time since they made attempts to domesticate animals, make crude
pots and grow some plants. A few Old Stone Age paintings have
Old Stone Age Tools
PRE HISTORY
INDIA
Indian Ocean
Aribian Sea
Bay of Bengal
Adichanallur
Pallavaram
Anandapur
Prahmagiri
Maski
Sisupalgarh
Lothal
Mohenjadaro
Kalibangan
Rubar
Indus
Page 3


11 10
The history of human settlements in India goes back to
prehistoric times. No written records are available for the pre-
historic period. However, plenty of archaeological remains are found
in different parts of India to reconstruct the history of this period.
They include the stone tools, pottery, artifacts and metal implements
used by pre-historic people. The development of archaeology helps
much to understand the life and culture of the people who lived in
this period.
In India, the prehistoric period is divided into the Paleolithic
(Old Stone Age), Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age), Neolithic (New
Stone Age) and the Metal Age. However, these periods were not
uniform throughout the Indian subcontinent. The dating of the pre-
historic period is done scientifically.  The technique of radio-carbon
dating is commonly used for this purpose. It is based on measuring
the loss of carbon in organic materials over a period of time. Another
dating method is known as dendro-chronology. It refers to the
LESSON 2
PRE-HISTORIC INDIA AND
THE HARAPPAN CULTURE
Learning Objectives
Students will acquire knowledge about
1. The Pre-historic period.
2. Origin and evolution of the Harappan Civilization.
3. Socio-economic condition of the Harappan people.
4. Cultural life of the Harappans.
5. The Decline of the Harappan Civilization.
13 12
number of tree rings in wood. By counting the number of tree rings
in the wood, the date of the wood is arrived at.
Paleolithic or Old Stone Age
The Old Stone Age sites are widely found in various parts of
the Indian subcontinent. These sites are generally located near water
sources. Several rock shelters and caves used by the Paleolithic
people are scattered across the subcontinent. They also lived rarely
in huts made of leaves. Some of the famous sites of Old Stone Age
in India are:
a. The Soan valley and Potwar Plateau on the northwest India.
b. The Siwalik hills on the north India.
c. Bhimpetka in Madhya Pradesh.
d. Adamgarh hill in Narmada valley.
e. Kurnool in Andhra Pradesh and
f. Attirampakkam near Chennai.
In the Old Stone Age, food was obtained by hunting animals
and gathering edible plants and tubers. Therefore, these people are
called as hunter-gatherers. They used stone tools, hand-sized and
flaked-off large pebbles for hunting
animals. Stone implements are made of a
hard rock known as quartzite. Large
pebbles are often found in river terraces.
The hunting of large animals would have
required the combined effort of a group
of people with large stone axes. We have
little knowledge about their language and
communication. Their way of life became modified with the passage
of time since they made attempts to domesticate animals, make crude
pots and grow some plants. A few Old Stone Age paintings have
Old Stone Age Tools
PRE HISTORY
INDIA
Indian Ocean
Aribian Sea
Bay of Bengal
Adichanallur
Pallavaram
Anandapur
Prahmagiri
Maski
Sisupalgarh
Lothal
Mohenjadaro
Kalibangan
Rubar
Indus
15 14
Uttar Pradesh and in several places of the Deccan. The important
Neolithic sites excavated in south India are Maski, Brahmagiri, Hallur
and Kodekal in Karnataka, Paiyampalli in Tamil Nadu and Utnur in
Andhra Pradesh.
The chief characteristic features of the Neolithic culture are
the practice of agriculture, domestication of animals, polishing of
stone tools and the manufacture of pottery. In fact, the cultivation of
plants and domestication of animals led to the emergence of village
communities based on sedentary life.
There was a great improvement in technology of making tools
and other equipments used by man. Stone tools were now polished.
The polished axes were found to be more effective tools for hunting
and cutting trees. Mud brick houses were built instead of grass huts.
Wheels were used to make pottery. Pottery was used for cooking
as well as storage of food grains. Large urns were used as coffins
for the burial of the dead. There was also improvement in agriculture.
Wheat, barely, rice, millet were cultivated in different areas at
different points of time. Rice cultivation was extensive in eastern
India. Domestication of sheep, goats and cattle was widely prevalent.
Cattle were used for cultivation and for transport. The people of
Neolithic Age used clothes made of cotton and wool.
Metal Age
The Neolithic period is followed by Chalcolithic (copper-stone)
period when copper and bronze came to be used. The new
technology of smelting metal ore and crafting metal artifacts is an
important development in human civilization. But the use of stone
tools was not given up. Some of the micro-lithic tools continued to
be essential items. People began to travel for a long distance to
obtain metal ores. This led to a network of Chalcolithic cultures
and the Chalcolithic cultures were found in many parts of India.
also been found on rocks at Bhimbetka and other places. The period
before 10000 B.C. is assigned to the Old Stone Age.
Mesolithic or Middle Stone Age
The next stage of human life is called Mesolithic or Middle
Stone Age which falls roughly from 10000 B.C. to 6000 B.C. It
was the transitional phase between the Paleolithic Age and Neolithic
Age. Mesolithic remains are found in Langhanj in Gujarat, Adamgarh
in Madhya Pradesh and also in some places of Rajasthan, Utter
Pradesh and Bihar. The paintings and engravings found at the rock
shelters give an idea about the social life and economic activities of
Mesolithic people. In the sites of Mesolithic Age, a different type of
stone tools is found. These are tiny stone artifacts, often not more
than five centimeters in size, and therefore called microliths. The
hunting-gathering pattern of life continued during this period.
However, there seems to have been a shift from big animal hunting
to small animal hunting and fishing. The use of bow and arrow also
began during this period. Also, there began a tendency to settle for
longer periods in an area. Therefore, domestication of animals,
horticulture and primitive cultivation started. Animal bones are found
in these sites and these include dog, deer, boar and ostrich.
Occasionally, burials of the dead along with some microliths and
shells seem to have been practiced.
Neolithic Age
A remarkable progress is
noticed in human civilization in the
Neolithic Age. It is approximately
dated from 6000 B.C to 4000
B.C. Neolithic remains are found
in various parts of India. These
include the Kashmir valley,
Chirand in Bihar, Belan valley in
New Stone Age Tools
Page 4


11 10
The history of human settlements in India goes back to
prehistoric times. No written records are available for the pre-
historic period. However, plenty of archaeological remains are found
in different parts of India to reconstruct the history of this period.
They include the stone tools, pottery, artifacts and metal implements
used by pre-historic people. The development of archaeology helps
much to understand the life and culture of the people who lived in
this period.
In India, the prehistoric period is divided into the Paleolithic
(Old Stone Age), Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age), Neolithic (New
Stone Age) and the Metal Age. However, these periods were not
uniform throughout the Indian subcontinent. The dating of the pre-
historic period is done scientifically.  The technique of radio-carbon
dating is commonly used for this purpose. It is based on measuring
the loss of carbon in organic materials over a period of time. Another
dating method is known as dendro-chronology. It refers to the
LESSON 2
PRE-HISTORIC INDIA AND
THE HARAPPAN CULTURE
Learning Objectives
Students will acquire knowledge about
1. The Pre-historic period.
2. Origin and evolution of the Harappan Civilization.
3. Socio-economic condition of the Harappan people.
4. Cultural life of the Harappans.
5. The Decline of the Harappan Civilization.
13 12
number of tree rings in wood. By counting the number of tree rings
in the wood, the date of the wood is arrived at.
Paleolithic or Old Stone Age
The Old Stone Age sites are widely found in various parts of
the Indian subcontinent. These sites are generally located near water
sources. Several rock shelters and caves used by the Paleolithic
people are scattered across the subcontinent. They also lived rarely
in huts made of leaves. Some of the famous sites of Old Stone Age
in India are:
a. The Soan valley and Potwar Plateau on the northwest India.
b. The Siwalik hills on the north India.
c. Bhimpetka in Madhya Pradesh.
d. Adamgarh hill in Narmada valley.
e. Kurnool in Andhra Pradesh and
f. Attirampakkam near Chennai.
In the Old Stone Age, food was obtained by hunting animals
and gathering edible plants and tubers. Therefore, these people are
called as hunter-gatherers. They used stone tools, hand-sized and
flaked-off large pebbles for hunting
animals. Stone implements are made of a
hard rock known as quartzite. Large
pebbles are often found in river terraces.
The hunting of large animals would have
required the combined effort of a group
of people with large stone axes. We have
little knowledge about their language and
communication. Their way of life became modified with the passage
of time since they made attempts to domesticate animals, make crude
pots and grow some plants. A few Old Stone Age paintings have
Old Stone Age Tools
PRE HISTORY
INDIA
Indian Ocean
Aribian Sea
Bay of Bengal
Adichanallur
Pallavaram
Anandapur
Prahmagiri
Maski
Sisupalgarh
Lothal
Mohenjadaro
Kalibangan
Rubar
Indus
15 14
Uttar Pradesh and in several places of the Deccan. The important
Neolithic sites excavated in south India are Maski, Brahmagiri, Hallur
and Kodekal in Karnataka, Paiyampalli in Tamil Nadu and Utnur in
Andhra Pradesh.
The chief characteristic features of the Neolithic culture are
the practice of agriculture, domestication of animals, polishing of
stone tools and the manufacture of pottery. In fact, the cultivation of
plants and domestication of animals led to the emergence of village
communities based on sedentary life.
There was a great improvement in technology of making tools
and other equipments used by man. Stone tools were now polished.
The polished axes were found to be more effective tools for hunting
and cutting trees. Mud brick houses were built instead of grass huts.
Wheels were used to make pottery. Pottery was used for cooking
as well as storage of food grains. Large urns were used as coffins
for the burial of the dead. There was also improvement in agriculture.
Wheat, barely, rice, millet were cultivated in different areas at
different points of time. Rice cultivation was extensive in eastern
India. Domestication of sheep, goats and cattle was widely prevalent.
Cattle were used for cultivation and for transport. The people of
Neolithic Age used clothes made of cotton and wool.
Metal Age
The Neolithic period is followed by Chalcolithic (copper-stone)
period when copper and bronze came to be used. The new
technology of smelting metal ore and crafting metal artifacts is an
important development in human civilization. But the use of stone
tools was not given up. Some of the micro-lithic tools continued to
be essential items. People began to travel for a long distance to
obtain metal ores. This led to a network of Chalcolithic cultures
and the Chalcolithic cultures were found in many parts of India.
also been found on rocks at Bhimbetka and other places. The period
before 10000 B.C. is assigned to the Old Stone Age.
Mesolithic or Middle Stone Age
The next stage of human life is called Mesolithic or Middle
Stone Age which falls roughly from 10000 B.C. to 6000 B.C. It
was the transitional phase between the Paleolithic Age and Neolithic
Age. Mesolithic remains are found in Langhanj in Gujarat, Adamgarh
in Madhya Pradesh and also in some places of Rajasthan, Utter
Pradesh and Bihar. The paintings and engravings found at the rock
shelters give an idea about the social life and economic activities of
Mesolithic people. In the sites of Mesolithic Age, a different type of
stone tools is found. These are tiny stone artifacts, often not more
than five centimeters in size, and therefore called microliths. The
hunting-gathering pattern of life continued during this period.
However, there seems to have been a shift from big animal hunting
to small animal hunting and fishing. The use of bow and arrow also
began during this period. Also, there began a tendency to settle for
longer periods in an area. Therefore, domestication of animals,
horticulture and primitive cultivation started. Animal bones are found
in these sites and these include dog, deer, boar and ostrich.
Occasionally, burials of the dead along with some microliths and
shells seem to have been practiced.
Neolithic Age
A remarkable progress is
noticed in human civilization in the
Neolithic Age. It is approximately
dated from 6000 B.C to 4000
B.C. Neolithic remains are found
in various parts of India. These
include the Kashmir valley,
Chirand in Bihar, Belan valley in
New Stone Age Tools
17 16
Harappan  Culture
Generally, Chalcolithic cultures had grown in river valleys.
Most importantly, the Harappan culture is considered as a part of
Chalcolithic culture. In South India the river valleys of the Godavari,
Krishna, Tungabhadra, Pennar and Kaveri were settled by farming
communities during this period. Although they were not using metals
in the beginning of the Metal Age, there is evidence of copper and
bronze artifacts by the end of second millennium B.C. Several bronze
and copper objects, beads, terracotta figurines and pottery were
found at Paiyampalli in Tamil Nadu.
The Chalcolithic age is followed by Iron Age. Iron is frequently
referred to in the Vedas. The Iron Age of the southern peninsula is
often related to Megalithic Burials. Megalith means Large Stone.
The burial pits were covered with these stones. Such graves are
extensively found in South India. Some of the important megalithic
sites are Hallur and Maski in Karnataka, Nagarjunakonda in Andhra
Pradesh and Adichchanallur in Tamil Nadu. Black and red pottery,
iron artifacts such as hoes and sickles and small weapons were
found in the burial pits.
The Harappan Civilization
The earliest excavations in the Indus valley were done at
Harappa in the West Punjab and Mohenjodaro in Sind. Both places
are now in Pakistan. The findings in these two cities brought to light
a civilization. It was first called the ‘The Indus Valley Civilization’.
But this civilization was later named as the ‘Indus Civilization’ due
to the discovery of more and more sites far away from the Indus
valley. Also, it has come to be called the ‘Harappan Civilization’
after the name of its first discovered site.
Important Sites
Among the many other sites excavated, the most important
are Kot Diji in Sind, Kalibangan in Rajasthan, Rupar in the Punjab,
Lothal
Aribian Sea
Chanhudro
Mohenjadaro
Kalipangan
Harappa
Rupar
Indus
Zhelum
Ravi
Page 5


11 10
The history of human settlements in India goes back to
prehistoric times. No written records are available for the pre-
historic period. However, plenty of archaeological remains are found
in different parts of India to reconstruct the history of this period.
They include the stone tools, pottery, artifacts and metal implements
used by pre-historic people. The development of archaeology helps
much to understand the life and culture of the people who lived in
this period.
In India, the prehistoric period is divided into the Paleolithic
(Old Stone Age), Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age), Neolithic (New
Stone Age) and the Metal Age. However, these periods were not
uniform throughout the Indian subcontinent. The dating of the pre-
historic period is done scientifically.  The technique of radio-carbon
dating is commonly used for this purpose. It is based on measuring
the loss of carbon in organic materials over a period of time. Another
dating method is known as dendro-chronology. It refers to the
LESSON 2
PRE-HISTORIC INDIA AND
THE HARAPPAN CULTURE
Learning Objectives
Students will acquire knowledge about
1. The Pre-historic period.
2. Origin and evolution of the Harappan Civilization.
3. Socio-economic condition of the Harappan people.
4. Cultural life of the Harappans.
5. The Decline of the Harappan Civilization.
13 12
number of tree rings in wood. By counting the number of tree rings
in the wood, the date of the wood is arrived at.
Paleolithic or Old Stone Age
The Old Stone Age sites are widely found in various parts of
the Indian subcontinent. These sites are generally located near water
sources. Several rock shelters and caves used by the Paleolithic
people are scattered across the subcontinent. They also lived rarely
in huts made of leaves. Some of the famous sites of Old Stone Age
in India are:
a. The Soan valley and Potwar Plateau on the northwest India.
b. The Siwalik hills on the north India.
c. Bhimpetka in Madhya Pradesh.
d. Adamgarh hill in Narmada valley.
e. Kurnool in Andhra Pradesh and
f. Attirampakkam near Chennai.
In the Old Stone Age, food was obtained by hunting animals
and gathering edible plants and tubers. Therefore, these people are
called as hunter-gatherers. They used stone tools, hand-sized and
flaked-off large pebbles for hunting
animals. Stone implements are made of a
hard rock known as quartzite. Large
pebbles are often found in river terraces.
The hunting of large animals would have
required the combined effort of a group
of people with large stone axes. We have
little knowledge about their language and
communication. Their way of life became modified with the passage
of time since they made attempts to domesticate animals, make crude
pots and grow some plants. A few Old Stone Age paintings have
Old Stone Age Tools
PRE HISTORY
INDIA
Indian Ocean
Aribian Sea
Bay of Bengal
Adichanallur
Pallavaram
Anandapur
Prahmagiri
Maski
Sisupalgarh
Lothal
Mohenjadaro
Kalibangan
Rubar
Indus
15 14
Uttar Pradesh and in several places of the Deccan. The important
Neolithic sites excavated in south India are Maski, Brahmagiri, Hallur
and Kodekal in Karnataka, Paiyampalli in Tamil Nadu and Utnur in
Andhra Pradesh.
The chief characteristic features of the Neolithic culture are
the practice of agriculture, domestication of animals, polishing of
stone tools and the manufacture of pottery. In fact, the cultivation of
plants and domestication of animals led to the emergence of village
communities based on sedentary life.
There was a great improvement in technology of making tools
and other equipments used by man. Stone tools were now polished.
The polished axes were found to be more effective tools for hunting
and cutting trees. Mud brick houses were built instead of grass huts.
Wheels were used to make pottery. Pottery was used for cooking
as well as storage of food grains. Large urns were used as coffins
for the burial of the dead. There was also improvement in agriculture.
Wheat, barely, rice, millet were cultivated in different areas at
different points of time. Rice cultivation was extensive in eastern
India. Domestication of sheep, goats and cattle was widely prevalent.
Cattle were used for cultivation and for transport. The people of
Neolithic Age used clothes made of cotton and wool.
Metal Age
The Neolithic period is followed by Chalcolithic (copper-stone)
period when copper and bronze came to be used. The new
technology of smelting metal ore and crafting metal artifacts is an
important development in human civilization. But the use of stone
tools was not given up. Some of the micro-lithic tools continued to
be essential items. People began to travel for a long distance to
obtain metal ores. This led to a network of Chalcolithic cultures
and the Chalcolithic cultures were found in many parts of India.
also been found on rocks at Bhimbetka and other places. The period
before 10000 B.C. is assigned to the Old Stone Age.
Mesolithic or Middle Stone Age
The next stage of human life is called Mesolithic or Middle
Stone Age which falls roughly from 10000 B.C. to 6000 B.C. It
was the transitional phase between the Paleolithic Age and Neolithic
Age. Mesolithic remains are found in Langhanj in Gujarat, Adamgarh
in Madhya Pradesh and also in some places of Rajasthan, Utter
Pradesh and Bihar. The paintings and engravings found at the rock
shelters give an idea about the social life and economic activities of
Mesolithic people. In the sites of Mesolithic Age, a different type of
stone tools is found. These are tiny stone artifacts, often not more
than five centimeters in size, and therefore called microliths. The
hunting-gathering pattern of life continued during this period.
However, there seems to have been a shift from big animal hunting
to small animal hunting and fishing. The use of bow and arrow also
began during this period. Also, there began a tendency to settle for
longer periods in an area. Therefore, domestication of animals,
horticulture and primitive cultivation started. Animal bones are found
in these sites and these include dog, deer, boar and ostrich.
Occasionally, burials of the dead along with some microliths and
shells seem to have been practiced.
Neolithic Age
A remarkable progress is
noticed in human civilization in the
Neolithic Age. It is approximately
dated from 6000 B.C to 4000
B.C. Neolithic remains are found
in various parts of India. These
include the Kashmir valley,
Chirand in Bihar, Belan valley in
New Stone Age Tools
17 16
Harappan  Culture
Generally, Chalcolithic cultures had grown in river valleys.
Most importantly, the Harappan culture is considered as a part of
Chalcolithic culture. In South India the river valleys of the Godavari,
Krishna, Tungabhadra, Pennar and Kaveri were settled by farming
communities during this period. Although they were not using metals
in the beginning of the Metal Age, there is evidence of copper and
bronze artifacts by the end of second millennium B.C. Several bronze
and copper objects, beads, terracotta figurines and pottery were
found at Paiyampalli in Tamil Nadu.
The Chalcolithic age is followed by Iron Age. Iron is frequently
referred to in the Vedas. The Iron Age of the southern peninsula is
often related to Megalithic Burials. Megalith means Large Stone.
The burial pits were covered with these stones. Such graves are
extensively found in South India. Some of the important megalithic
sites are Hallur and Maski in Karnataka, Nagarjunakonda in Andhra
Pradesh and Adichchanallur in Tamil Nadu. Black and red pottery,
iron artifacts such as hoes and sickles and small weapons were
found in the burial pits.
The Harappan Civilization
The earliest excavations in the Indus valley were done at
Harappa in the West Punjab and Mohenjodaro in Sind. Both places
are now in Pakistan. The findings in these two cities brought to light
a civilization. It was first called the ‘The Indus Valley Civilization’.
But this civilization was later named as the ‘Indus Civilization’ due
to the discovery of more and more sites far away from the Indus
valley. Also, it has come to be called the ‘Harappan Civilization’
after the name of its first discovered site.
Important Sites
Among the many other sites excavated, the most important
are Kot Diji in Sind, Kalibangan in Rajasthan, Rupar in the Punjab,
Lothal
Aribian Sea
Chanhudro
Mohenjadaro
Kalipangan
Harappa
Rupar
Indus
Zhelum
Ravi
19 18
Date of the Harappan Culture
In 1931, Sir John Marshall estimated the duration of the
occupation of Mohenjodaro between 3250 and 2750 B.C.
Subsequently, as and when new sites were discovered, the dating
of the Harappan culture is modified. The advent of the radiocarbon
method paves way for fixing almost accurate dates. By 1956,
Fairservis brought down the dating of the Harappan culture to
between 2000 and 1500 B.C. on the basis of radiocarbon dates of
his findings. In 1964, D.P. Agarwal came to the conclusion that the
total span of this culture should be between 2300 and 1750 B.C.
Yet, there is further scope of modification of these dates.
Salient Features of the Harappan Culture
Town Planning
The Harappan culture was distinguished by its system of town-
planning on the lines of the grid system – that is streets and lanes
cutting across one another almost at right angles thus dividing the
city into several rectangular
blocks. Harappa, Mohenjodaro
and Kalibangan each had its own
citadel built on a high podium of
mud brick. Below the citadel in
each city lay a lower town
containing brick houses, which
were inhabited by the common
people. The large-scale use of burnt bricks in almost all kinds of
constructions and the absence of stone buildings are the important
characteristics of the Harappan culture. Another remarkable feature
was the underground drainage system connecting all houses to the
street drains which were covered by stone slabs or bricks.
 
Great Bath at Mohenjodaro
Banawali in Haryana, Lothal, Surkotada and Dholavira, all the three
in Gujarat. The larger cities are approximately a hundred hectares
in size. Mohenjodara is the largest of all the Indus cities and it is
estimated to have spread over an area of 200 hectares.
Origin and Evolution
The archaeological findings excavated for the last eight
decades reveal the gradual development of the Harappan culture.
There are four important stages or phases of evolution and they are
named as pre-Harappan, early-Harappan, mature-Harappan and
late Harappan.
The pre-Harappan stage is located in eastern Baluchistan.
The excavations at Mehrgarh 150 miles to the northwest of
Mohenjodaro reveal the existence of pre-Harappan culture. In this
stage, the nomadic people began to lead a settled agricultural life.
In the early-Harappan stage, the people lived in large villages
in the plains. There was a gradual growth of towns in the Indus
valley. Also, the transition from rural to urban life took place during
this period.  The sites of Amri and Kot Diji remain the evidence for
early-Harappan stage.
In the mature-Harappan stage, great cities emerged. The
excavations at Kalibangan with its elaborate town planning and urban
features prove this phase of evolution.
In the late-Harappan stage, the decline of the Indus culture
started. The excavations at Lothal reveal this stage of evolution.
Lothal with its port was founded much later. It was surrounded by a
massive brick wall as flood protection.  Lothal remained an
emporium of trade between the Harappan civilization and the
remaining part of India as well as Mesopotamia.