Techniques of Data Collection-2 | Sociology Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Types of Interview

• Non-Directive Interview or Unstructured Interview
• Directive Interview or Structured Interview
• Focused Interview
• Repeated Interview
• Depth Interview

1. Non-Directive Interview or Unstructured Interview

• In this type of interview, the interviewer does not follow a predetermined list of questions.
• Interviewees are encouraged to express their experiences, attitudes, and opinions freely.
• It is flexible and open-ended, allowing the researcher to gain insights that may be missed in a structured interview.
• Limitations include difficulty in comparing answers and the potential for the interviewer to influence the respondent's answers.

2. Directive Interview or Structured Interview

• This type of interview uses a standardized technique and predetermined questions.
• It is useful for administrative and market research purposes.
• The main advantage is the ability to make careful tabulations and comparisons of the answers.
• The limitation is that it may not elicit the real opinions of the informant.

3. Focused Interview

• This interview is conducted with persons known to have been involved in a specific situation.
• It is based on an interview guide outlining the major areas of inquiry and relevant hypotheses.
• The interviewee is given considerable freedom to express their definition of the situation.
• The focused interview is considered semi-standardized and requires care in preparation and skillful handling by the interviewer.

4. Repeated Interview

• This type of interview is useful for tracing the specific developments of social or psychological processes.
• It involves interviewing the same respondent multiple times to understand the progressive actions, factors, or attitudes determining a given behavior pattern or social situation.
• The repeated interview technique is expensive but offers the advantage of studying progressive actions and events as they occur.

5. Depth Interview

• Aims to elicit unconscious material relating to personality dynamics and motivations.
• This lengthy procedure encourages free expression of emotionally charged information.
• It may be used with special devices such as free association and projective techniques.
• Requires specialized training and should not be attempted without it.

Crucial Points in Interviewing

• Appearance and behavior of the interviewer should be similar to that of the interviewee.
• Establishing rapport and maintaining friendliness is essential.
• Avoid imposing one's will on the interviewee and respect their right to refuse answering questions.
• Avoid arguments, insults, and confusing questions.
• Maintain objectivity and neutrality while recording responses.
• Patience and active listening are key skills for an effective interviewer.

Advantages and Limitations of Interviews

Advantages:

• Ability to secure dependable and in-depth information.
• High rate of response due to the active role of the interviewer.
• Applicable to a wide range of respondents.
• Provides information about past, present, and future actions or plans.

Limitations:

• Interviewer's incapability or bias can affect the outcome.
• Selection of the "right" person to interview may be challenging.
• Divergent or antagonistic views between interviewer and interviewee can create confusion or spoil the outcome.
• Requires intensive training and skill development.
• Incomplete by itself; needs supplementation with other methods, such as observation.
• No guarantee of honest opinions from the interviewee.
• Potential for respondents to report formal social behavior rather than actual behavior.

The Social Surveys 

Social surveys are widely popular in the field of sociology, often associated with sociologists for collecting information. Although social surveys are a crucial method for gathering data, it is not the only way. In this article, we will explore the meaning and definition of social surveys, their procedural ways, and the various methods of conducting surveys.

Meaning and Definition
According to Duncan Mitchell's "Dictionary of Sociology," a social survey is "a systematic collection of facts about people living in a specific geographic, cultural, or administrative area." Bogardus defines it as "the collection of data concerning the living and working conditions, broadly speaking, of the people, in a given community." Social surveys aim to deal with multiple aspects of a social problem, providing data for administration and having a strong connection with the development of statistics.

History and Types of Social Surveys

The modern social survey emerged as a response to the social conditions of urban life in the 19th Century. Three types of social surveys are often distinguished: (a) The Poverty Survey, (b) The Ecological Survey, and (c) The Functional Study of the city.

The Procedural Ways of Social Survey
The social survey method seeks social facts and typically involves the following steps:

• Enunciating the object or purpose of the survey, defining the problem under study, delimiting the area or scope of the study, examining available evidence, preparing a questionnaire schedule, conducting field work to collect data, arranging and analyzing data, interpreting results, and deducing conclusions.
• Social surveys focus on collecting data related to a significant social problem to find an effective solution. The survey is usually limited to a specific geographic area or population. The population refers to the total group of people whose attitudes, opinions, or behaviors are of interest to the sociologist.

Methods of Conducting Social Surveys
Surveys can be conducted in various ways:

• Mail Surveys: Contacting respondents by letter and asking them to complete the questionnaires themselves before returning it.
• Assistant-Delivered Surveys: An assistant of the surveyor delivers the questionnaires to the respondents, requests them to complete it, and arranges to pick them up later.
• Group Surveys: Questionnaires are not completed by individuals separately, but by people in a group under the direct supervision of the research worker.
• Interview-Based Surveys: A trained interviewer asks the questions and records the responses on a schedule for each respondent.

Each of these procedures has different strengths and weaknesses. Social surveys may rely on self-administered questionnaires, schedules completed by trained interviewers, or the research worker personally. Social surveys involve some amount of office work, such as preparing schedules, addressing envelopes, and processing completed schedules for computer analysis.

Some Main Forms of Social Surveys

• Official, Semi-official, or Private Surveys: These surveys are conducted by government agencies, non-government organizations, or private institutions. They vary in their objectives and the type of information they collect.
• Widespread or Limited Surveys: Widespread surveys cover a large area or population, while limited surveys focus on specific regions or target groups.
• Census Survey or Sample Surveys: Census surveys involve collecting data from every member of a population, while sample surveys involve collecting data from a representative sample of the population.
• General or Specialized Surveys: General surveys cover a broad range of topics, while specialized surveys focus on specific topics or issues.
• Postal or Personal Surveys: Postal surveys involve sending questionnaires through the mail, whereas personal surveys involve face-to-face interviews with respondents.
• Public or Confidential Surveys: Public surveys make their findings available to the general public, while confidential surveys protect the privacy of respondents and keep the data confidential.
• Initial or Repetitive Surveys: Initial surveys are conducted for the first time, while repetitive surveys are conducted periodically to track changes over time.
• Regional or Ad Hoc Surveys: Regional surveys focus on specific geographic areas, while ad hoc surveys are conducted to address specific, timely issues.

Controversies Related to Social Surveys

1. Reliability and Validity of Survey Results: There is ongoing debate about the accuracy and trustworthiness of the data obtained from social surveys. Researchers must ensure that their survey methods and data analysis techniques are reliable and valid to produce meaningful results.
2. Relationship between Individual Characteristics and Social Properties: Critics argue that it is difficult to generalize individual responses to questions in a survey to broader social phenomena. This concern highlights the need for researchers to carefully design survey questions and interpret results.
3. Validity of Survey Responses: Some people doubt the accuracy of the responses provided by survey participants. To address this concern, researchers must use various techniques to ensure the validity of the data collected, such as using expert interviewers and multiple data collection methods.

Sample Surveys and the Random Sample

• Sample surveys involve collecting data from a representative subset of a population. This method is widely used in sociological research due to its efficiency and cost-effectiveness. To ensure that a sample accurately represents the population, researchers use random sampling techniques.
• A random sample is one in which every element in the population has an equal chance of being included. This method ensures that the sample is representative and unbiased. Researchers can use various methods to create a random sample, such as using computer-generated random numbers or selecting every nth person from a list.
• However, random sampling is not always feasible in sociological research due to the lack of available population lists or the difficulty in creating such lists. Additionally, existing lists may be biased and must be used cautiously.

Other Kinds of Sample

Sampling Techniques in Sociological Research

1. Random Sample: In this method, every individual in the population has an equal chance of being selected as part of the sample. This technique helps in minimizing biases and ensures a more representative sample.
2. Systematic (Pseudo-random) Sample: In this approach, the ratio of sample size to population size (e.g., 1 to 15) is used to derive an interval (K). Then every Kith element in the population is included in the sample. For example, every 15th student who registers himself or herself in the college office and who is regularly attending the classes might be included in the sample.
3. Stratified Sample: This mode entails dividing the population into segments or strata and then sampling within each stratum. This technique ensures that the different segments or strata will be represented in the sample in precisely the same proportion as they occur in the population.
4. Cluster Sample: This mode entails grouping elements of a population into geographic units. For example, the student population of a University Campus could be sampled in clusters based on the different hostels in which they stay.

Other Methods Used in Sociological Research

• Sociometry: Sociometry is a set of techniques to measure in quantitative and diagrammatic terms attractions and repulsions in interpersonal relations. The technique is now found to be simple, reliable, and more useful in the study of interpersonal relations.
• Experimental Method: The experimental method provides a reliable way of studying the relationship between two variables under carefully controlled conditions. Experiments can be conducted either in the laboratory or in the field.
  • Laboratory Experiments: In a laboratory experiment, the people and any necessary materials are brought into an artificial environment that can be carefully regulated by a researcher. This type of experiment is more appropriate when the researcher wants to control the situation in minute detail.
  • Field Experiments: Field experiments take research out to people instead of bringing people to the research laboratory. It takes place outside the laboratory under somewhat less artificial conditions, such as in a prison, hospital, college, or factory. Field experiments are more suitable when the researcher wants to minimize the possibility that people will change their typical behavior in the artificial laboratory experiment.
• The Verstehen Approach (The Method of Understanding): The Verstehen approach is often used in sociological researches. The German word "Verstehen" means understanding or comprehension of sociological issues or problems. German sociologist Max Weber developed this method or approach, which combines subjective interpretations with rigorous analysis.

Limitations of Experimental Method in Sociological Research

• Hawthorne Effect: When people realize that they are experimental subjects, they begin to act differently, and the experiment may be spoiled.
• Deception: The use of deception in social research poses the ethical question of distinguishing between harmless deception and intellectual dishonesty, and it may even produce errors in the outcome.
• Narrowly defined issues: The experimental method can be used only for very narrowly defined issues.
• Artificial situations: People may behave very differently in the artificial experimental situation than they would in normal situations.

Despite these limitations, the experimental method remains an important tool in sociological research. It allows the sociologist to investigate specific topics that often cannot be systematically examined under everyday conditions where so many other influences might conceal or distort the processes involved. Although sociologists often make use of this method, they depend more heavily on other techniques.

Conclusion

Interviews and social surveys are valuable methods for collecting data in sociological research. Interviews can be conducted in various forms, each with its advantages and limitations. Social surveys involve systematic collection of data and can be executed through different approaches, such as mail, assistant-delivered, group, or interview-based surveys. While these methods have their strengths and weaknesses, they are crucial in understanding social phenomena and addressing social issues. Researchers must carefully design and interpret survey questions, maintain objectivity, and utilize a combination of methods to ensure reliable and valid results. Additionally, other methods, such as sociometry, experimental methods, and the Verstehen approach, further contribute to the field of sociological research.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) of Methods And Techniques of Social Research

What are the main types of interviews used in sociological research?

The main types of interviews used in sociological research are non-directive interviews (or unstructured interviews), directive interviews (or structured interviews), focused interviews, repeated interviews, and depth interviews.

What is the main purpose of a social survey?

A social survey is conducted to systematically collect data about people living in a specific geographic, cultural, or administrative area. The main purpose is to gather information on various aspects of a social problem, providing data for administration and policymaking, and helping in the development of statistics.

What are some common methods of conducting social surveys?

Some common methods of conducting social surveys include mail surveys, assistant-delivered surveys, group surveys, and interview-based surveys.

What is the difference between a random sample and a stratified sample?

A random sample is one in which every element in the population has an equal chance of being included, ensuring that the sample is representative and unbiased. A stratified sample, on the other hand, involves dividing the population into segments or strata and then sampling within each stratum. This technique ensures that the different segments or strata will be represented in the sample in precisely the same proportion as they occur in the population.

What are some limitations of the experimental method in sociological research?

Some limitations of the experimental method in sociological research include the Hawthorne effect (people acting differently when they know they are being observed), the use of deception, the focus on narrowly defined issues, and the potential for artificial situations that may not accurately represent real-world behavior.