The Advent of Europeans in India | History for UPSC CSE PDF Download

In the late 15th century, Portuguese navigator Vasco da Gama arrived on the Indian subcontinent, initiating maritime connections that heralded the beginning of European influence in the region. This was followed by expeditions from other European nations such as the Dutch, English, and French, which heightened competition for trade supremacy and territorial control. The creation of trading posts and colonies marked a transformative phase in India's history, driven by global interactions and culminating in the rise of British colonial rule. The arrival of Europeans profoundly impacted India's social, economic, and political landscapes, leaving an enduring legacy.

The Advent of Europeans in India

The advent of Europeans in India marked a significant turning point in the history of India. 

• The Arrival of Vasco da Gama: The arrival of Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama in 1498 marked the establishment of a direct sea route between Europe and India. This significant event paved the way for European colonialism and dominance in trade within the subcontinent.
• Other Europeans: Following the Portuguese, other European powers entered the scene, vying for control over the profitable spice trade. This competition led to the creation of trading posts and fortifications along India's coastline.
• Impact: Their presence introduced cultural exchanges, sparked conflicts with local rulers, and transformed Indian society. This era set the stage for centuries of European influence and eventual colonial domination in India.

The Advent of The Portuguese 

The Portuguese arrival in India marked the beginning of European colonialism in the subcontinent.

Factors behind the Portuguese Voyage to India

After the decline of the Roman Empire and the fall of Constantinople in 1453, the Arabs established dominance in Egypt and Persia, controlling the trade routes to India. The Europeans lost direct contact with India and the easy accessibility to Indian commodities. 

• Spirit of the voyage: In the 15th century, there was a growing eagerness in Europe for adventurous sea voyages to reach the East, driven by the spirit of the Renaissance and advancements in shipbuilding and navigation.
• Division of non-Christian world: The Treaty of Tordesillas(1494) divided the non-Christian world between Portugal and Spain, granting Portugal the eastern territories and Spain the western territories. This set the stage for Portuguese incursions into the waters around India.

The Portuguese Governors

Vasco da Gama: 

• Vasco da Gama's arrival in Calicut (modern-day Kozhikode) in 1498 marked a turning point in Indian history. The Zamorin, the Hindu ruler of Calicut, welcomed him, recognizing the importance of trade to his kingdom's prosperity.
• However, Arab traders, who had long been influential along the Malabar coast, viewed the Portuguese presence with apprehension, fearing a loss of their dominance.
• Determined to monopolize the lucrative eastern trade, the Portuguese sought to eliminate their rivals, particularly the Arabs. When Vasco da Gama returned to India in 1501, his attempts to marginalize Arab merchants in favor of Portuguese interests led to resistance from the Zamorin.

Francisco de Almeida (1505-1509): 

• In 1505, Francisco de Almeida was appointed as the Governor of India, with the mission to consolidate Portuguese influence and destroy Muslim trade. 
• Almeida faced opposition from the Zamorin and a threat from the Mamluk Sultan of Egypt. 
• In 1507, the Portuguese squadron was initially defeated in a naval battle off Diu but avenged the defeat the following year.
•  Almeida aimed to make the Portuguese the masters of the Indian Ocean through his Blue Water Policy. 
• Blue Water Policy (Cartaze system): It was a naval trade licence or pass issued by the Portuguese empire in the Indian Ocean during the sixteenth century. Its name derives from the Portuguese term 'cartas', meaning letters.

Alfonso de Albuquerque (1509-1515)

• Alfonso de Albuquerque took over from Almeida and set up Portuguese bases that were strategically located to watch over the entrances to the Indian Ocean.
• He created a system that required ships to have permits and gained control over important shipbuilding locations.
• In 1510, Albuquerque captured Goa from the Sultan of Bijapur, marking it as the first Indian area under European rule since the time of Alexander the Great.
• During Albuquerque's leadership, many Portuguese people moved to India, where they became landlords, artisans, craftsmen, and traders.
• An important change during his time was the end of the practice of sati.

Nino da Cunha (1529-1538)

• He moved the headquarters from Cochin to Goa. 
• The Portuguese secured the island of Bassein and its dependencies from Bahadur Shah of Gujarat in 1534, but their relations soured after Humayun withdrew from Gujarat, leading to a confrontation in which Bahadur Shah was killed by the Portuguese in 1537. 
• Additionally, da Cunha attempted to increase Portuguese influence in Bengal by settling many Portuguese nationals there with Hooghly as their headquarters.

Decline of the Portuguese

By the 18th century, the Portuguese in India experienced a decline in their commercial influence. 

• The Portuguese lost their local advantages as powerful dynasties emerged in Egypt, Persia, and North India, and the Marathas became their immediate neighbours. 
• The Marathas captured Salsette and Bassein from the Portuguese in 1739. 
• The religious policies of the Portuguese, including the activities of the Jesuits, caused political concerns. 
• Their conversion efforts to Christianity, coupled with antagonism towards Muslims, led to resentment among Hindus.

Significance of the Portuguese

• The emergence of naval power: The arrival of the Portuguese in India marked the emergence of naval power and initiated what is often referred to as the European era. 
• Own systems: The Portuguese disregarded existing rules and sought to establish their dominance over Indian trade and the Indian Ocean trading system.
• Military innovations: In the sixteenth century Malabar, the Portuguese demonstrated military innovation with their use of body armour, matchlock men, and guns landing from their ships.
• Maritime techniques: The Portuguese excelled in maritime techniques, with their heavily constructed multi-decked ships designed to withstand Atlantic gales, allowing for heavier armament. 
• Organisational skills: Their organisational skills, the establishment of royal arsenals and dockyards, and the maintenance of a regular system of pilots and mapping were notable contributions. 
• Religious Policy: The Portuguese arrived in the East with a zeal to promote Christianity and persecute Muslims. They were initially tolerant towards Hindus but became increasingly intolerant over time, especially after the introduction of the Inquisition in Goa.

The Advent of The Dutch

The Dutch Commercial enterprise led them to undertake voyages to the East. 

• Trading company: In 1602, the States-General of the Netherlands merged various trading companies to form the East India Company of the Netherlands. 
• This company was granted the authority to conduct wars, negotiate treaties, acquire territories, and establish fortresses.
• Trading centre: The Dutch established their control over  Masulipatnam in 1605 and they established their settlement at Pulicat in 1610.

The Advent of The English

In 1599, a group of English merchants known as the 'Merchant Adventurers' formed a company to pursue Eastern trade and share in the high profits enjoyed by the Portuguese. 

• Queen’s charter: Queen Elizabeth I issued a charter on December 31, 1600, granting exclusive trading rights to the newly formed 'Governor and Company of Merchants of London trading into the East Indies.' 
• Initially granted a monopoly of fifteen years, it was later extended indefinitely.

Foothold in West and South

• Arrival at Jahangir’s court: In 1609, Captain Hawkins arrived at the court of Jahangir in an attempt to establish a factory at Surat, but it was unsuccessful due to Portuguese opposition. 
• Beginning of trade: However, the English began trading at Masulipatnam in 1611 and established a factory there in 1616. 
• Battle with Portuguese: In 1612, Captain Thomas Best defeated the Portuguese in a sea battle of Surat, leading to Jahangir granting permission for an English factory in Surat in 1613. 
• Peace was established with the Portuguese, and an Anglo-Dutch compromise allowed the English to trade without interference. 
• Gift of Bombay: Bombay was gifted to King Charles II in 1662 and later given to the East India Company in 1668, becoming their headquarters in 1687. 
• Madras: The English also obtained trading privileges from the Sultan of Golconda and built a fortified factory at Madras in 1639, which became the headquarters of English settlements in South India. 

Foothold in Bengal

Bengal, a prosperous and significant province of the Mughal Empire, attracted English merchants due to its trade and commercial opportunities. 

• Permission to trade: In 1651, Shah Shuja, the subahdar of Bengal, granted the English permission to trade in Bengal in exchange for an annual payment. 
• Request for a fortified settlement: Seeking a fortified settlement, William Hedges, the first agent and governor of the Company in Bengal, appealed to Shaista Khan, the Mughal governor, but hostilities ensued. 
• Settlement at Sutanuti: In 1686, Hooghly was sacked by the Mughals, leading to English retaliation. After negotiations, Job Charnock signed a treaty with the Mughals in 1690, allowing the English to establish a factory at Sutanuti. 
• Fort William: The English obtained permission to buy the zamindari of Sutanuti, Gobindapur, and Kalikata in 1698, and the fortified settlement was named Fort William in 1700, becoming the seat of the eastern presidency (Calcutta).

The Advent of The French

The French, although harbouring a desire for East Asian commerce since the early 16th century, arrived on the Indian coasts relatively late.

• In 1664, during the rule of Louis XIV, Minister Colbert created the Compagnie des Indes Orientales (French East India Company), which was granted a 50-year monopoly on French trade in the Indian and Pacific Oceans.
• The company was restructured as the Perpetual Company of the Indies in 1720 and was made stronger under the leadership of Lenoir and Dumas.
• The French company encountered difficulties during conflicts with the Dutch and the War of Spanish Succession, which caused them to abandon their trading posts in Surat, Masulipatnam, and Bantam.
• Pondicherry was established in 1674 and became the central hub of French influence in India.

The Advent of The Danes

The Danish East India Company, also known as the Danish Asiatic Company, was established in 1616 and 1620; they founded a factory at Tranquebar near Tanjore, on the eastern coast of India. 

• Their principal settlement was at Serampore near Calcutta. 
• The Danish factories, which were not important at any time, were sold to the British government in 1845. 
• The Danes are better known for their missionary activities than for commerce.

Reasons for English success against other Europeans

The success of England over other European powers in India can be attributed to several key factors:

• Structure and nature of trading companies: The English East India Company, unlike its counterparts, was controlled by a board of directors elected annually, with shareholders exercising considerable influence. 
• Naval superiority: The Royal Navy of Britain was the largest and most advanced in Europe, having achieved notable victories such as the defeat of the Spanish Armada and the French at Trafalgar. 
• Industrial Revolution: England was at the forefront of the Industrial Revolution, benefiting from inventions and advancements in textiles, metallurgy, steam power, and agriculture. 
• Military skill and discipline: British soldiers were highly disciplined and well-trained. British commanders demonstrated strategic prowess and implemented innovative tactics, which, combined with technological advancements, allowed smaller groups of British fighters to defeat larger armies.
• Stable Government: Compared to other European nations experiencing periods of political upheaval, Britain enjoyed relatively stable governance with efficient monarchs. France, in particular, faced the turbulent period of the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars, weakening its position and forcing it to align with Britain.
• Lesser zeal for religion: Unlike Spain, Portugal, and the Dutch, Britain displayed less zealousness in spreading Christianity. This more tolerant approach made British rule more acceptable to the local population in India.
• Use of debt market: Britain successfully utilised the debt markets to fund its wars, particularly through the establishment of the Bank of England.