The Congress of Vienna 1814–1815 | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Congress of Vienna

The Congress of Vienna was a gathering held in 1814–15 to reorganize Europe following the Napoleonic Wars and the defeat of Napoleon. The final Act of Congress was signed on June 9, 1815. France was dealt with separately by the second Treaty of Paris in 1815. All European states except Turkey were represented at the Congress.

Principal Participants: The main business of the Congress was conducted by the four Great Powers who played a crucial role in overthrowing Napoleon:

• Austria: Represented by Chancellor Metternich and King Francis I. Metternich, as the president of the Congress, used his influence to secure a settlement that promoted Austria's interests and positioned her as a key player in Europe.
• Prussia: Represented by Frederick William III.
• Russia: Represented by Czar Alexander I, who initially had liberal ideas but was influenced by Metternich’s reactionary policies.
• Great Britain: Represented by foreign ministers Lord Castlereagh and the Duke of Wellington, who worked to reconcile the differing interests of the Allies.

Immediate Challenges: The Congress aimed to redraft Europe’s political map, isolate France, dampen her revolutionary ideas, restore traditional order, and re-establish the balance of power disrupted by Napoleon.

Key Principles of the Congress

• Balance of Power: To secure against French aggression, France was reduced to its pre-Revolution boundaries, required to pay a heavy indemnity, maintain an occupation army for five years, and restore art treasures taken by Napoleon. Surrounding France with strong states included:
• Belgium: Joined with Holland.
• Prussia: Gained territories on the Rhine.
• Sardinia-Piedmont: Strengthened by acquiring Genoa.
• Legitimacy: Advocated by Talleyrand to protect France from territorial losses. This principle restored the Bourbons in France, Spain, and Naples, the House of Savoy in Sardinia-Piedmont, the House of Orange in Holland, the Pope in central Italy, and German princes in territories annexed by Napoleon. It also restored the Swiss Confederation and guaranteed its neutrality.
• Compensation to Victors: In some cases, the principle of legitimacy was compromised to compensate victors at the expense of the defeated. Norway was taken from Denmark and given to Sweden, Saxony surrendered territory to Prussia, and Russia gained Poland, Finland, and Bessarabia. Prussia obtained Swedish Pomerania, Polish territory, 40% of Saxony, and part of the Rhine. Austria received Venetia, Lombardy, areas from Bavaria, Illyrian provinces, and Adriatic coast, giving her a strong position in Italy. England expanded her colonial power with territories like Malta, Ionian Islands, Trinidad, Ceylon, and Cape of Good Hope.

German Confederation:

• Germany was formed into a loose confederation of 39 states, as Metternich opposed a united Germany, influenced by the selfishness and jealousy of German princes who wanted to maintain their independence.

Criticism of the Vienna Settlement

• The Vienna Congress is criticized for ignoring the prevailing forces of the time, particularly the new forces of democracy and nationalism unleashed by the French Revolution. The diplomats focused on dynastic interests and the balance of power, disregarding popular sentiments and national aspirations.
• Critics argue that the Congress’s settlement was more temporary than permanent, and much of 19th-century history involved undoing the Congress’s decisions. The Congress is seen as failing to adapt to the new realities of democracy and nationalism, treating European peoples as pawns in a dynastic game.
• Other criticisms include the disregard for popular sentiments and the principle of legitimacy not being applied universally. Smaller states were also overlooked in the negotiations.
• However, some argue that the criticism of the Vienna Congress is overly harsh. The diplomats were not expected to foresee future contingencies and their settlement secured peace for forty years. They were also constrained by previous treaties and pledges, which limited their flexibility in negotiations.
• Despite the criticisms, the work of the Congress is viewed as having maintained a degree of stability and order in Europe post-Napoleon.

Holly Alliance and Concert of Europe

The Congress of Vienna marked the victory of reactionary forces, aiming to restore pre-revolutionary conditions as closely as possible. While the Vienna treaties were backed by the collective guarantees of the Powers, past experiences highlighted the need for a mechanism to ensure closer international cooperation for European peace. Two proposals emerged:

Holy Alliance:

• Initiated by Czar Alexander of Russia, the Holy Alliance aimed to infuse politics with Christian principles, promoting peace and goodwill through spirituality.
• All European monarchs, except the Pope and the Sultan, were invited to sign the document. Most did, except the Prince Regent of England, and few took it seriously.
• Metternich dismissed it as "a loud sounding nothing," and it remained more of a mystical wish than a practical framework.
• The Holy Alliance, open to all nations, foreshadowed the international peace movement that gained momentum with the Hague Conference of 1899.
• It was more of a pious aspiration than a binding treaty, reflecting Alexander I's idealism.

Quadruple Alliance:

• A more pragmatic approach was needed to safeguard the Vienna settlement, leading to the formation of the Quadruple Alliance in November 1815 by the major powers: Russia, Prussia, Austria, and Britain.

Objectives:

• Maintenance of treaties with France.
• Preservation of political stability in Europe.
• Promotion of friendly relations among the four sovereigns for the welfare of the world.
• The Quadruple Alliance also proposed regular diplomatic congresses to address arising issues, giving rise to the Concert of Europe or Congress System.
• This period, following the Quadruple Alliance, is known as the Age of Congresses, during which Metternich's guidance led to a dominance of the Great Powers, suppressing liberalism and clashing with emerging forces of nationality and democracy.

Concert of Europe or Congress System

• Formed after the Congress of Vienna in the post-Napoleonic era, the Concert of Europe was a system of dispute resolution adopted by the major conservative powers of Europe to:
• Maintain their power,
• Oppose revolutionary movements,
• Weaken the forces of nationalism, and
• Uphold the balance of power.
• Primarily devised by the "Big Four" – Austria, Russia, Prussia, and England – it marked a shift to diplomacy by conference, distinguishing it from earlier individual diplomacy and representing a new experiment in internationalism.
• The Concert of Europe assumed the right and responsibility of great powers to intervene and impose their collective will on states facing internal rebellion.
• For instance, the Congress authorized Austria to quell the revolt in Naples (1820) and France to suppress the revolt in Spain (1822), as both were ruled by the Bourbon family.
• While the powers intervened in Italy and Spain, they later accepted Belgium's rebellion and declaration of independence (1830).

Causes of the Failure of the Concert of Europe

• The Concert of Europe disintegrated due to two main reasons: divergence of principles and mutual jealousy among the Powers.
• Divergence of Principles:
  • From the beginning, England opposed the principle of intervention in the internal affairs of other States, as advocated by Metternich at the Congress of Troppau in 1820.
  • When England could not prevent France from intervening in Spain, it withdrew from the Congress held at Verona.
  • England’s withdrawal dealt a severe blow to the Concert, as it could not align with the autocratic Powers.
  • Metternich's principle of status quo became associated with tyranny and stagnation, leading to the discrediting of his diplomatic system.
• Mutual Jealousy of the Powers:
  • The differing outlooks and interests of the Powers led to mutual jealousies that were insurmountable.
  • While they acted in harmony against weaker states, such as curbing Bavaria's ambitions or advising Monaco's ruler, they struggled to reach consensus on issues involving their own conflicting interests.
  • For example, England resisted joint action against the Barbary pirates to prevent Russian ships from entering the Mediterranean.
  • When the Greeks revolted against Turkey, Czar wanted isolated Russian action in Turkey, but Metternich, supported by Britain, prevented this due to Austria’s rivalry with Russia in the Balkans.
  • England’s opposition to intervention in Spain, particularly after France obtained a mandate to suppress the Spanish revolt, further strained relations within the Concert.
  • England’s independent line after withdrawing from the Congress, including recognizing the independence of Spanish colonies in America, marked the end of the Concert.

Monroe Doctrine

• The Monroe Doctrine was a significant policy declared by President James Monroe in 1823, aimed at protecting the Americas from European colonialism. Monroe was concerned that any attempt by European powers to extend their influence into the New World would threaten American social and political institutions.
• To address this, Monroe issued a warning to European nations, stating that any efforts to control independent states in North or South America would be seen as a hostile act towards the United States. This doctrine became a cornerstone of U.S. policy, opposing European interference in the Americas.
• The Monroe Doctrine also dealt a blow to the Concert of Europe, which was a system of cooperation among European powers. By asserting the principle of non-interference in American affairs, the doctrine weakened the Concert of Europe’s influence and affirmed U.S. dominance in the Western Hemisphere.

Lack of Democracy

• The Concert of Europe was primarily dominated by a select group of powerful nations. It emerged as a response to the Napoleonic wars, resulting from a collective effort against a common adversary. However, once this common threat was eliminated, the Concert lost its unity and coherence.
• With the absence of a unifying enemy, the member nations reverted to their individual diplomatic strategies based on the principles of the Balance of Power, leading to a decline in the Concert's effectiveness and collaborative spirit.