The Revolutionaries: Bengal, Punjab, Maharashtra, UP, Madras Presidency, Outside India | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Emergence of the Revolutionaries

• Alternative Political Trend: The Emergence of the Revolutionaries represented a new political trend, distinct from the Moderates’ focus on constitutional agitation and the Extremists’ strategy of mass struggle and direct action.
• Shortcomings of Moderates and Extremists:
  • Moderates: The Moderates’ approach had lost its effectiveness and faced criticism from the Extremists.
  • Extremists: By the end of 1907, the Extremists also reached a dead end, as their political program lacked practical expression, and their initially inspiring ideology failed to translate into action.
• British Attitude: The British response remained marked by arrogance and repression, with little change in attitude. Fulfillment of demands seemed unlikely, exemplified by the continued partition of Bengal despite protests.
• Militant Ideology: The rising tendency towards using force to counter force was fueled by elements such as direct action, radicalism, and self-sacrifice, integral to the militant ideology of the time.
• Legacy of Early Revolutionary Terrorists: The groundwork for the new generation of revolutionaries in the 1920s was laid by early Revolutionary Terrorists through secret societies, anti-establishment journals, and heroic actions that created a platform for future movements.
• Impact of Non-cooperation Movement: The revolutionary movement’s emergence was significantly influenced by the Non-cooperation Movement, where key members participated with high hopes for independence. The abrupt suspension of the movement, particularly after the chauri-chaura incident, led to disillusionment among the youth.
• Shift in Political Appeal: The alternative political actions proposed by the Swarajists and Gandhi’s Constructive Programme did not resonate with the revolutionaries, pushing them towards socialism and revolutionary terrorism, with a unique socialist flavor.
• Inspiration from the Russian Revolution: The Russian Revolution inspired the youth by showcasing the triumph of socialist ideas and the success of mass revolution against formidable odds, motivating them to action.
• Influence of the Working Class: The vague but present upsurge of the working class influenced the Revolutionaries, who recognized the class’s revolutionary potential and sought to harness it for the national revolution.

Ideology and Programme of Revolutionaries

Revolutionary Extremism as a Response to Colonial Challenges:

• Revolutionary extremism emerged as a response of the nationalist youth to the challenges posed by colonial rule. It represented an alternative political approach to the failures of both Moderate constitutional agitation and Extremist direct action.

Failure of Previous Approaches:

• Moderates and Extremists failed to fulfill the aspirations of the people.
• This failure led to a surge of pent-up emotions among the youth, who believed that British rule could only be overthrown through force and acts of individual and group heroism.

Cult of Violence:

• The fundamental aspect of terrorist ideology was the cult of violence, centered around the use of bombs and pistols.
• The aim was to instill terror among the British and inspire revolutionary and patriotic sentiments among the Indian populace.

Terrorist Activities:

• Terrorist activities included the assassination of unpopular British officials and organizing swadeshi dacoities to raise funds.
• These actions were driven by a strong belief that force was the only means to drive out British power.

Role of Secret Societies:

• Secret societies were the backbone of the organizational structure, serving as focal points for revolutionary activities.
• They were instrumental in training and organizing terrorist actions.

Influence of Newspapers and Journals:

• Newspapers and journals played a crucial role in revolutionary activities.
• They were anti-establishment in nature and served as channels for disseminating revolutionary ideas and propaganda.
• These publications also contributed to arousing anti-imperialist sentiments.

Role of Religion and Mysticism:

• Early 20th-century revolutionary terrorists drew inspiration from religion and mysticism.
• However, their approach was not communalist.
• Religion provided them with inner strength and motivated them to fight for the national liberation of all Indians, rather than promoting hate against specific communities.

Shift in the 1920s:

• The 1920s saw a significant shift in the approach of revolutionary terrorists.
• This shift marked a transition from random actions to a focus on concrete aims and ideologies.
• A new generation of terrorist revolutionaries emerged, with a deeper consciousness and an expanded base that included workers, peasants, and common people.
• The movement incorporated individual or group armed actions within a broader revolutionary program.

Principal Aspects of the Ideology of the Terrorist Revolutionaries in the 1920s

• The Revolutionary terrorists of the 1920s, especially in North India, exhibited a distinct socialist orientation. They were not merely focused on national independence but also aimed at creating a new social order based on socialism. This new order was envisioned to end exploitation and promote egalitarianism.
• For these revolutionaries, socialism represented a shift in class power, where workers and peasants held the reins of power. They saw British rule as a class rule by foreign capitalists and believed that socialism could eliminate this class rule, leading to true independence.
• Intellectually, they advocated for the development and organization of a mass movement of the exploited to reconstruct society and establish a socialist system devoid of class distinctions and domination.
• Revolution was central to their ideology, signifying change, progress, order, and regeneration. It was viewed as a dynamic force capable of saving society from decay and degeneration. Revolution encompassed the regeneration and restructuring of society, addressing injustice and exploitation, and reflecting the people's aspirations for better social and economic conditions.
• One notable shift in their ideology was the embrace of secular nationalism, contrasting with the religious undertones of earlier phases. They opposed communal forces and advocated for a unified national identity.
• Their primary form of propaganda was propaganda through action, including acts of terrorism and heroism. This was seen as crucial for preparing the ground for revolution, generating revolutionary consciousness, and disseminating revolutionary ideas.
• The youth were regarded as the vanguard of the revolution, tasked with conveying the revolutionary socialist message and fighting for the cause. The revolutionaries believed that only the youth had the capacity for sacrifice and heroism necessary to popularize revolutionary ideas.
• A new aspect of their ideology was the recognition of the revolutionary potential of the masses. They believed in a mass-led revolution, emphasizing the organization of workers and peasants as central to their political agenda.

Weaknesses and Decline of the Revolutionaries

Revolutionary Terrorists: Idealism vs. Pragmatism:

• The Revolutionary Terrorists were more aligned with idealism than with pragmatism.

Theoretical vs. Practical Failures:

• While they inspired high ideals theoretically, they fell short in practical execution.
• Their inspiring ideals failed to manifest in reality.
• There were glaring contradictions between their ideology and actions.

Ideological Commitment vs. Practical Action:

• Though committed to socialism theoretically, their practical efforts were limited to nationalism.
• They planned for mass action in theory but were confined to terrorist and individual actions in practice.
• Their intended social base of peasants and workers was replaced by the urban lower middle class and petty bourgeois youth.

Lack of Mass Revolution Efforts:

• The revolutionaries made minimal efforts towards mass revolution.
• They were disconnected from the masses, failing to elevate their movement to a mass level.
• This disconnection contradicted the fundamental principles of their ideology.

Weakness and Government Action:

• Operating at an individual and group level without a popular base, their activities were weak.
• Consequently, government action dealt a severe blow to them.
• A series of conspiracy cases, harsh measures, and severe penalties significantly reduced their ranks.

Opposition to Gandhian Leadership:

• The revolutionaries opposed Gandhian leadership and aimed to shift the youth and masses away from Gandhian ideology.
• However, they failed to provide a viable alternative.
• They could not give the national movement a revolutionary direction nor establish revolutionary socialist dominance over the nationalist movement.
• Ultimately, they remained a weak force and gradually faded away.

Lack of Coordination and Internal Conflicts:

• Overall, the revolutionaries operated at cross-purposes.
• They lacked an effective organizational structure and strong central leadership, often becoming directionless.
• Carefully prepared plans were rare and even these brought minimal success.

Propaganda through Action:

• They believed in propaganda through action to foster revolutionary consciousness and prepare the ground for revolution.
• However, instead of spreading revolutionary ideas, their efforts bolstered nationalistic sentiments, strengthening nationalist leadership and the movement they led.
• Ironically, their sacrifices did not support their own movement.

Internal Conflicts and Religiosity:

• Dissension and internal squabbles weakened their unity and strength.
• The intense religiosity of the movement was also a detrimental factor, undermining its strength.
• While inspiring past Hindu ideals of heroism motivated action and instilled a spirit of sacrifice, it hampered the growth of organization, leadership, and effective programs.
• This intense religiosity also contributed to isolating Muslims from the movement, particularly in the case of the first-generation revolutionaries.

Moderates and Extremists' Attitudes:

• Moderates disapproved of the revolutionaries' ideology and program.
• Extremists could not offer them full support.
• As a result, the revolutionaries operated as an independent force, lacking support from prominent political groups and the masses.

Growth of Revolutionaries Abroad

• Revolutionary activities and propaganda were also conducted outside India in Indo-China, Singapore, Siam, Afghanistan, in the U.S. and in Germany.

Shyamji Krishna Verma:

• In 1905, he founded the Indian Home Rule Society in London and started the journal Indian Sociologist.
• He gathered around him a group of revolutionaries and the centre of their activities was the Indian House founded by Shyamji in London.

Madam Cama:

• A close associate of Shyamji.
• She continued propaganda in favour of revolutionary activities and sought to organize protest movement against the deportation of Lajpat Rai and Ajit Singh.
• Defending revolutionary activities she said, “Three years ago it was repugnant to me even to talk of violence as a subject of discussion; but owing to the heartlessness, the hypocrisy, the rascality of the Liberals, that feeling is gone. Why should we deplore the use of violence when our enemies drive us to it?”

Dhingra:

• Dhingra assassinated Wiliam Curzan-Wylie in London (July 1, 1909).
• Dhingra said in a statement at the time of his execution, “Poor in wealth and intellect a son like myself has nothing else to offer to the Mother but his own blood. The only lesson required in India at present is to learn how to die and the only way to teach it is by dying ourselves. Therefore, I die and glory in my Martyrdom“.

Raja Mahendra Pratap and Sardar Singh Rana:

• Raja Mahendra Pratap set up in 1915 a provisional independent government of India in Kabul.

Indian Independence League:

• In 1907 Taraknath Das and his associates formed the Indian Independence League in California.
• The object was to spread revolutionary ideas among Indians living in the United States.
• Lala Hardayal was one of the active members of the League.

Ghadar Party:

• In 1913 the Ghadar Party was founded in the United States with Indian workers and students, mostly Punjabis.
• The party’s aim was to overthrow British rule in India.
• The word Ghadar means revolution.
• The party’s organ,the Ghadar, became very popular.
• During the First World War, the Ghadar Party established contact with revolutionaries in India and planned an armed revolt against the British.
• Large quantities of foreign arms and munitions were unsuccessfully sought to be smuggled into India.

Chandrakanta Chakravarty:

• In 1916,Chandrakanta Chakravarty planned an uprising against British imperialism in Asia with promise of help from Germany.
• However, the ambitious plan fizzled out.
• Group rivalries and personal animosities often undermined Indian revolutionary activities abroad.

The Ghadar Movement 

•  The Ghadar Party was established in 1913 by Indians living in America and Canada. 
•  Most members were Sikh soldiers and farmers, while the leaders were educated Muslims or Hindus. 
•  The party had branches in several countries, including Mexico, Japan, the Philippines, Malaya, Singapore, Thailand, and Indo-China. 
•  The Ghadar Party aimed to lead a revolutionary war against the British government. 
•  After World War I, the party began sending workers, supporters, and weapons to Indian revolutionaries. 
•  Hardayal, the party organizer in the U.S., published a journal called  Ghadar  in various languages. 
•  Millions of dollars were raised to support the Ghadarites, with people donating their life savings and selling valuable possessions. 
•  The Ghadar Party urged Indian soldiers to revolt at the right time and planned a violent struggle from Punjab on February 21, 1915. 
•  However, the British authorities discovered these plans and took swift action, disbanding rebellious regiments and imprisoning or executing their leaders. 
•  Inspired by the Ghadar Party, 700 men of the 5th Light Infantry in Singapore revolted but also failed, with many facing execution or life imprisonment. 
•  Prominent figures in the Ghadar movement included  Barkatullah, Raja Mahendra Pratap, Jatin Mukherjee, Ras Behari Bose, Lala Hardayal,  and  Madam  , who carried out revolutionary activities and anti-British propaganda in various countries. 
•  Although their dream of a free India did not materialize in their lifetime, they inspired future generations, leaving a lasting impact on the Indian struggle for independence. 

The First Phase (1897-1910):

•  Akharas/ gymnasia and early secret societies: 
•  Akharas promoted a culture of physical fitness and interest in militant politics in Bengal during the 1860s and 1870s. 
•  These laid the groundwork for early secret societies in Bengal around 1902. 
•  Key secret societies: 
•  Midnapore Secret Society:  Founded by Jnanendranath and Satyendranath Basu, and Hemchandra Kanungo. 
•  Sarala Ghoshal:  Started a gymnasium for training revolutionaries in sword and lathi-play. 
•  Atmannyoti Samiti:  Founded by Nibaran Bhattacharya. 
•  Anushilan Samiti:  Established by Satishchandra Basu. 

Swadeshi Movement: 

•  The Swadeshi Movement in 1905 significantly boosted the activities of secret societies. 
•  Dacca chapter of Anushilan Samiti:  Founded by Pulinbehari Das in 1906. 
•  Secret societies played a crucial role in organizing the Swadeshi movement in Dacca and Midnapore. 
•  Hemchandra Kanungo:  Travelled to Europe in 1906 to train with revolutionaries. 
•  Aurobindo and Charuchandra Dutta:  Launched a weekly called ‘Yugantar’ and engaged in revolutionary activities. 

 Alipore Bomb Case, 1908:

•  Khudiram Bose and Prafulla Chaki:  Attempted to assassinate magistrate Kingsford but killed the wrong targets. 
•  Aftermath:  Arrests followed, with Prafulla committing suicide and Khudiram executed. 
•  Dacca Anushilan Samiti:  Gained notoriety with the Barrah dacoity in 1908. 

 Deccan:

•  Discontent in Deccan:  Following the plague epidemic, resentment grew due to property destruction and forced hospitalizations. 
•  Chapekar brothers:  Assassinated Plague Commissioner Rand in 1897, influencing later revolutionaries. 
•  V. D. Savarkar:  Inspired by the Chapekar brothers, led a group that evolved into Abhinav Bharat. 

 From outside India:

•  Shyamji Krishna Varma:  Founded the India Home Rule Society and the journal Indian Sociologist, and established the India House in 1905. 
•  India House:  Became a hub for revolutionary leaders in London. 
•  Savarkar:  Transported to the Andamans for life imprisonment. 
•  Madanlal Dhingra:  Assassinated Curzon Wyllie, was hanged in 1909. 
•  Revolutionary trials:  Those involved in the Muzaffarpur blast and bomb factory were tried in 1910, leading to hangings and deportations. 
•  End of the first phase:  These events marked the conclusion of the intense first phase of revolutionary activity. 

The Second Phase (1910-1918)

1. Expansion to Other Parts of India: 

•  The second phase saw the spread of revolutionary activities across  various regions of India  . 
•  Secret societies were formed in  Benaras  and  Dehradun  by  Rashbehari Bose  and  Sachindranath Sanyal  . 
•  In  Punjab  , similar organizations were established by  Ajit Singh  ,  Bhai Parmanand  , and  Hardayal  , with support from  Lala Lajpat Rai  and  Hansraj  . 
•  The  Anushilan Samiti  in  Dhaka  and the  Yugantar group  in  Calcutta  under  Jantindranath Mukherji  expanded their activities. 
•  The  Bharat Mata Association  was founded in  Tirunelveli  ,  Madras Presidency  . 
•  These societies continued to target British officials and engage in  dacoities  to fund their activities. 
•  They also established connections with sympathizers and arms suppliers outside India. 

2. Emergence of the Ghadar Movement: 

•  Revolutionaries in  Europe  continued their attacks on the colonial government in India through journals. 
•  The most significant development was the rise of the Ghadar Movement on the Pacific coast of  America  and  British Columbia  , led by Punjabi emigrants. 
•  The Ghadar party was founded in  San Francisco  in  1913  by  Lala Hardayal  and  Sohan Singh Bhakhna  . 
•  A similar organization called  ‘Free Hindustan’  was established in  Vancouver  , Canada. 
•  Their goal was to exploit  British preoccupation  with World War I, connect with enemies like  Germany  and  Turkey  , and organize an uprising in India by  1915  , with the help of  sepoys  . 
•  Indian leaders like  Rashbehari Bose  ,  Jatindranath Mukherjee  ,  Vishnu Ganesh Pingle  , and  Sachindranath Sanyal  would coordinate with them. 
•  The  ‘Ghadar’  was widely circulated among Indians globally, and branches formed spontaneously in various countries to promote the revolution. 
•  Indian leaders negotiated with  Germans  for arms and ammunition to support the cause. 
•  The revolution in northern India was planned for  21 February 1915  , with around  8000 Ghadarites  infiltrating Punjab and connecting with garrisons. 
•  However, the plan failed due to the  non-arrival of German arms  and British discovery of the conspiracy. 
•  Consequences included  executions  ,  life transportations  , and  imprisonments  for Ghadarites. 
•  Sachindranath  was deported for life,  Jatindranath  died in a gun battle, and  Rashbehari Bose  escaped to  Japan  . 

 Third Phase (1918-1938):

•  Early Years  : The third phase began with a period of calm, as Gandhi’s entry into politics had revitalized mass support, evident in the widespread participation in the Non-Cooperation Movement of 1920. 
•  Revolutionary Response  : Revolutionaries observed the non-violent mass movement with admiration. However, this enthusiasm was short-lived when Gandhi abruptly called off the movement in February 1922 at its peak. 
•  Shift in Focus  : Gandhi’s decision caused disappointment within the Congress and the nation, triggering the third phase of the revolutionary movement. Revolutionary activities resurfaced, aiming to harness mass agitation but through methods opposed to Gandhi’s principle of non-violence. 
•  Armed Struggle and Ideology  : Preparation for armed struggle against the British continued through secret societies, bomb factories, and political dacoities. There was also an effort to develop a broader ideology for the socio-economic emancipation of the poor masses through revolution. 
•  Centres of Movement  : The movement spread across Bengal, Uttar Pradesh (UP), and Punjab. In Bengal, a “New Violence Party” emerged in 1923, linking with the Hindustan Republican Association (HRA) in UP. 
•  Kakori Dacoity  : In 1925, HRA activists held up a train in Kakori, near Lucknow, as part of a daring dacoity, leading to the arrest of many members later. This period saw significant developments in UP and Punjab, where the HRA aimed not just at overthrowing the British but establishing a federal republic in India through mass participation and universal suffrage to end the exploitation of the poor. 
•  HRA Leaders and HSRA  : Key HRA members, including Ashfaqullah, Ram Prasad Bismil, Rajendranath Lahiri, and Thakur Roshan Singh, were executed for their roles in the Kakori case. After their execution, the HRA leaders met in Delhi in 1928 to form the Hindustan Socialist Republican Army (HSRA). 
•  Bhagat Singh’s Leadership  : Bhagat Singh emerged as the main ideologue of the HSRA, giving it a Marxist-Socialist direction. The HSRA aimed to spread its ideas among peasants, students, and workers. 
•  Assassination of Saunders  : In December 1928, Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, and Rajguru assassinated Saunders, a police official, in retaliation for Lala Lajpat Rai’s death during the anti-Simon Commission protests, turning them into national heroes. 
•  Assembly Bombing and Imprisonment  : In 1929, Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt threw harmless bombs in the Central Legislative Assembly, intending to make a political statement, and were arrested. They used their imprisonment to advocate for the rights of political prisoners through hunger strikes, with Jatin Das dying after a 64-day fast. 

Surya Sen and the Indian Revolutionary Association (IRA):

•  Surya Sen’s Leadership  : In Bengal, the urgency for national independence, rather than a socialist revolution, was paramount. Surya Sen, a revolutionary from Chittagong, evaded police capture in Shovabazar and reorganized revolutionary efforts in Bengal, Bihar, Assam, and UP. 
•  Formation of the IRA  : In 1928, Surya Sen and his associates founded the Indian Revolutionary Association (IRA) in Chittagong, inspired by the Irish Sinn Fein. Their objective was to plan a military insurrection to seize Chittagong and declare it a republic. 
•  Armed Engagement and Guerrilla Warfare  : On April 22, 1930, the IRA engaged in a fierce gun battle with police in Chittagong, suffering losses of 13 members. Following this, they initiated guerrilla warfare, known as ‘khanda juddha,’ against the state. This campaign persisted until Surya Sen’s arrest in February 1933 and the capture of his close aides Tarakeswar Dastidar and Kalpana Datta in May 1933. 
•  Fate of the Revolutionaries  : Surya Sen and Tarakeswar Dastidar were sentenced to death, while Kalpana Datta received a life sentence in 1934. Sporadic revolutionary activities continued, often as reprisals for the deaths of these leaders, but with diminishing impact.