Theories of Religion - 2 | Sociology Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Introduction - Totemism

Totemism, as described by Durkheim, is a fundamental form of religion observed in various Australian Aboriginal societies. It is characterized by the division of society into clans, which are akin to large extended families, sharing certain duties and obligations. Members of a clan are bound by rules such as exogamy (prohibition of marriage within the clan) and are expected to support each other in times of need, such as mourning or seeking revenge.
In these societies, each clan has a totem, typically an animal or a plant, which is represented by drawings on wood or stone called churingas. The totem serves as a symbol or emblem of the clan, distinguishing it from other clans. However, the totem holds a deeper significance as it is considered the physical manifestation of the totemic principle or god.

• Durkheim posited that the totem, as a symbol of both god and society, reflects the idea that god and society are one and the same. Therefore, when people worship the totem, they are, in fact, venerating their society. This reverence is attributed to the realization that individuals are dependent on society, which holds greater importance and power than any single person.
• The question then arises as to why people do not directly worship society but instead create a sacred symbol like the totem. Durkheim explained that using a symbol makes it easier for individuals to visualize and express their awe and respect, as it is difficult to direct these emotions towards a complex entity like a clan.

Religion and the collective conscience
Durkheim posited that a society cannot function without shared values and moral beliefs that create a collective conscience. This collective conscience is essential for social order, control, solidarity, and cooperation. Religion plays a crucial role in reinforcing the collective conscience by ascribing sacredness to the values and beliefs that underpin social life, thereby giving them more power to guide human behavior.

• The respect people show towards sacred aspects of their religion translates to their attitude towards social duties and obligations. By worshipping society, individuals acknowledge the significance of the social group and their reliance on it, which ultimately fosters social solidarity.
• Collective worship is central to Durkheim's theory, as it brings together the members of a social group to express their shared values and beliefs through dramatic and reverential rituals. This atmosphere of collective worship enhances the integration of society, as members articulate, exchange, and comprehend the moral ties that bind them together.
• Durkheim proposed that the concept of gods or spirits, which often serve as the focal point for religious ceremonies, originated from the belief in the spirits of deceased relatives. Thus, the worship of gods is essentially the worship of ancestral souls. Since Durkheim also maintained that souls embody social values, the collective conscience is manifested through individual souls. Consequently, he concluded that religious worship is, in essence, the worship of the social group or society itself.

Evaluation of Durkheim

Durkheim's ideas continue to have a significant impact today, despite the criticisms against them. Some of the critiques include that Durkheim only studied a small and unrepresentative sample of Aboriginal tribes, making it problematic to generalize his conclusions about religion. Additionally, Andrew Dawson (2011) highlighted that some of the fieldwork data Durkheim relied on could be of questionable validity.

• Many sociologists argue that Durkheim's ideas are overstated. They agree that religion can play a role in promoting social solidarity and reinforcing social values, but they do not fully support his view that religion is the worship of society. Durkheim's ideas are more applicable to small, non-literate societies with a closely integrated culture and social institutions, where members share common beliefs and values. However, his ideas are less relevant to modern societies characterized by numerous subcultures, social and ethnic groups, specialized organizations, and diverse religious beliefs, practices, and institutions.
• Durkheim may also overemphasize the extent to which the collective conscience influences and shapes individual behavior. Hamilton (1995) argues that religious beliefs can sometimes conflict with societal values.
• Despite the extensive criticism, many sociologists acknowledge Durkheim's significant contribution to understanding religion. For instance, William E. Paden (2009) contends that Durkheim's observations about the importance of religion for social solidarity still hold true in many situations today. Examples include the symbolic significance of the Western Wall in Jerusalem for Jews and the distinct prayer postures of Sunni and Shi'ite Muslims, which demonstrate the importance of identity markers in collective worship for fostering social solidarity.

Talcott Parsons

Religion and value consensus
Talcott Parsons posited that human behavior is guided and regulated by norms established within the social system. These norms are shaped and organized by the cultural system, which offers broad directives for action through beliefs, values, and systems of meaning. For instance, many norms in Western societies reflect the value of materialism. As a component of the cultural system, religion plays a crucial role in offering guidance for human conduct and setting standards for evaluating behavior.

• In a Christian society, the Ten Commandments serve as an example of how religious beliefs can integrate various norms within the social system. The commandment "Thou shalt not kill" encompasses a wide range of norms, such as driving safely, resolving conflicts, and addressing the suffering of the elderly. These norms forbid actions like manslaughter, murder, and euthanasia, all of which are grounded in the same religious principle.
• Thus, religion offers overarching guidelines for behavior that manifest in numerous norms. By establishing general principles and moral beliefs, religion contributes to the societal consensus that Parsons considers essential for maintaining order and stability.

Religion and social order

• Parsons, similar to Malinowski, views religion as a solution to specific issues that arise in all societies and have the potential to disturb social harmony. These issues can be divided into two categories. The first category involves situations where individuals are affected by unforeseen and uncontrollable events, such as death, especially premature death. Like Malinowski, Parsons believes that religion serves as a coping mechanism for dealing with such events and helps in restoring the normalcy of life.
• The second category of problems relates to uncertainty, where individuals invest significant effort and skill in various endeavors, but the outcome is still uncertain due to unknown or uncontrollable factors. For instance, humans cannot accurately predict or control the impact of weather on agriculture. Once again, Parsons, following Malinowski's ideas, suggests that religion helps people adjust to and cope with these uncertain situations through rituals that boost their self-confidence.

Religion and meaning
Religion, as a part of the cultural system, plays a significant role in providing meaning to life by addressing the questions and concerns individuals have about themselves and the world around them. Social life often presents contradictions that can challenge the meanings people attribute to life, and religion helps in resolving these contradictions.

• For instance, the issue of suffering is a common concern - why do people experience pain and deprivation, often in an unequal and arbitrary manner? Religion offers various explanations, such as suffering being a test of faith, a punishment for sins, or a means to attain rewards in the afterlife. By providing such answers, religion helps to make sense of suffering and gives it meaning.
• Similarly, the problem of evil is prevalent in all societies, and it can be particularly troubling when individuals benefit from evil actions. Religion resolves this contradiction by asserting that justice will be served in the afterlife, and evil will receive its due consequences.
• Thus, Parsons asserts that a primary function of religion is to provide meaning and understanding to events that people may not expect or believe should occur. This enables both intellectual and emotional adjustment, which in turn, contributes to the maintenance of order and stability in society.

Criticisms of the Functionalist Approach

The functionalist approach to understanding religion mainly focuses on the positive aspects of religion and its contributions to society, such as promoting harmony, integration and solidarity. However, this perspective has some limitations and has been criticized for overlooking the negative and dysfunctional aspects of religion.

• One of the main criticisms is that functionalism tends to ignore the instances where religion can be a source of division and conflict within a community. It often fails to address the internal disagreements and disputes that can arise within religious groups, which can sometimes lead to open conflict and threaten social cohesion. This is exemplified by the numerous schisms within Christianity throughout history, highlighting the potential for religion to divide as much as it unites.
• Furthermore, the functionalist perspective does not adequately consider the hostilities that can exist between different religious groups within the same society. The conflicts between Catholics and Protestants in Northern Ireland, Shia and Sunni Muslims in Iraq, and Hindus and Muslims in India are all examples of how religion can pose a threat to social order and stability.
• To summarize, while the functionalist approach provides valuable insights into the positive contributions of religion to society, it has been criticized for its narrow focus on harmony and integration, and its failure to address the disruptive and divisive aspects of religion. It is essential to consider both the positive and negative aspects of religion in order to gain a more comprehensive understanding of its role in society.

Dysfunctions of Religion

While religion has been a fundamental social institution in human society, providing social solidarity and inner peace, it also has certain dysfunctional aspects. This article highlights the negative side of religion, as pointed out by scholars like Sumner and Keller, Benjamin Kidd, Gillin, Karl Marx, Thomas F. O'Dea, and others. The main dysfunctions of religion, according to functionalist Thomas F. O'Dea, are as follows:

• Inhibition of protests and social change: Religion often provides emotional consolation, helping individuals reconcile with their situations. However, this can also inhibit protests and impede social changes that may be beneficial for society. By preventing conflicts and protests, religion can delay necessary reforms and contribute to the build-up of resentments, eventually leading to costly and destructive revolutions.
• Hindrance to societal adaptation: Religion can establish and sacralize societal norms and values. However, some of these norms may become outdated and inappropriate under changing conditions, making it difficult for society to adapt. For example, the Catholic Church historically opposed money-lending at interest and birth control measures, despite their functional necessity in certain contexts.
• Increase in conflict and difficulty in finding realistic solutions: Religion can provide critical examination of societal norms and values, but it can also create unrealistic expectations and demands for reform. By claiming divine authority, religion can incite extremism and make compromise difficult. This was evident in the religious wars that followed the Reformation period, where left-wing Protestant sects' intolerance led to extreme positions.
• Obstruction to the development of new identities: Religion can foster loyalty to certain groups, impeding the development of new identities more suited to evolving situations. By dividing people along religious lines, religion can create inter-group conflicts and promote animosity, as seen in the aftermath of the Reformation.
• Promotion of dependence and irresponsibility: Religion can make its followers reliant on religious institutions and leaders, preventing the development of individual responsibility and self-direction. For example, many people in India seek advice from priests and religious leaders before undertaking significant ventures, rather than consulting with experts in the relevant field. This dependence on religion can hinder individual growth and development.

Other Dysfunctions of Religion

• Hinders Progress and Encourages Conservatism: Religion is often viewed as conservative, supporting traditionalism and maintaining the status quo. It may resist change and inhibit societal progress.
• Supports Harmful Practices: Throughout history, religion has sometimes supported harmful practices such as cannibalism, suicide, slavery, incest, human and animal sacrifice, and other immoral acts.
• Causes Confusion, Contradictions, and Conflict: Religion can be inconsistent, promoting both war and peace, wealth and poverty, hard work and idleness, virginity and prostitution. It does not provide an absolute moral standard.
• Contributes to Inequality and Exploitation: Religion can perpetuate the gap between the rich and poor and has been used as a tool to exploit disadvantaged groups. Marx referred to religion as the "opium of the masses."
• Encourages Superstitious Beliefs: Religion is closely related to superstition and can promote beliefs that cause more harm than good, such as attributing diseases to evil spirits or believing that God is responsible for childbirth.
• Leads to Wastefulness: Religion can result in economic waste, such as spending large amounts of money on religious structures and events, and wasting food and other resources in the name of offerings.
• Disrupts Unity: Religion can both unite and divide people, leading to wars, looting, violence, and other atrocities committed in the name of faith.
• Undermines Human Potential: By emphasizing divine power and grace, religion can make people fatalistic and undermine their abilities and potential, limiting creativity and personal growth.
• Hinders Scientific Achievements: Religion has often been seen as a challenge to science and has attempted to suppress scientific discoveries and the free inquiry of scholars, thus hindering scientific progress and democratic values.
• Promotes Fanaticism: Blind faith can lead to bigotry and fanaticism, which in turn can result in persecution, inhumane treatment, and suffering. Religion can sometimes make people ignore reality and become irrational in their beliefs and actions.

Marxist Views of Religion

From a Marxist perspective, religion is considered a form of mystification, distorting the real relationships between individuals and the inanimate forces of nature. In this view, humans create gods with personal attributes and assign them control over nature, which makes nature seemingly controllable through practices like prayer and sacrifice.

• However, Marx saw this as a manifestation of alienation, where people create imaginary beings or forces that stand above them and dictate their actions. In religious belief, individuals turn their empirical world into a foreign entity that is only conceived or imagined.
• Marx argued that religion would not persist indefinitely, as it was entrenched in societies that alienated and exploited their members. Once such societies were replaced, religion would no longer be necessary. He believed that the working class, or proletariat, would eventually overthrow the capitalist system, thereby eliminating the need for religion. Marx also criticized the social principles of Christianity as deceitful and hypocritical, stating that the proletariat held revolutionary potential.
• In the ideal communist society envisioned by Marx, exploitation and alienation would be eradicated, with communal ownership of the means of production leading to the dissolution of social classes. In such a society, individuals would control their destinies and cooperate for the common good. Religion would not exist in this communist utopia, as the social conditions that gave rise to it would have vanished.
• Therefore, according to Marx, religion is an illusion that alleviates the suffering caused by exploitation and oppression. It consists of myths that justify and legitimize the subjugation of the lower class and the dominance of the ruling class. Religion serves as a distortion of reality, providing various deceptions that underpin ruling-class ideology and false class consciousness.

In summary, from a Marxist perspective, religion is a tool that perpetuates social inequality and exploitation by offering false consolation to the oppressed and maintaining the power of the ruling class. As society progresses towards the ideal communist state, religion would lose its relevance and eventually cease to exist.

Religion as 'the opium of the people'

According to Marx, religion serves as a sedative that numbs the pain caused by oppression. It is a manifestation of genuine suffering and a protest against it, but it does little to address the issue because it makes life more tolerable and thus weakens the demand for change. In this sense, religion merely pacifies its followers rather than providing them with true happiness and fulfillment. Lenin also argued that religion is like a spiritual intoxicant in which the exploited individuals under capitalism lose their true essence and abandon their rights to a respectable life.
From a Marxist viewpoint, religion can alleviate the pain of oppression in the following ways:

• It guarantees a heavenly paradise of everlasting joy in the afterlife. Engels contended that Christianity's appeal to the oppressed classes lies in its assurance of deliverance from bondage and misery in the hereafter. The idea of heaven can make earthly life more bearable by giving individuals something to look forward to.
• Some religions either glorify the suffering caused by oppression or consider it a justifiable punishment. As Marx stated, "The social principles of Christianity declare all the despicable actions of the oppressors against the oppressed to be either a just retribution for original sins or trials that the Lord, in his infinite wisdom, prescribes for the redeemed." Viewing suffering as a test promises rewards for those who endure poverty with grace and humility. The famous biblical quote, "It is easier for a camel to pass through the eye of a needle than for a rich man to enter the Kingdom of Heaven," makes poverty more bearable by offering a reward for suffering and promising recompense for injustice in the afterlife.
• Religion can provide the hope of supernatural intervention to address earthly issues. Members of religious organizations, such as Jehovah's Witnesses, eagerly await the day when divine forces will descend and establish heaven on earth. This anticipation can make the present more tolerable.
• Religion often justifies the social order and an individual's position within it. God can be perceived as creating and sanctioning the social structure, as seen in this verse from the Victorian hymn "All things bright and beautiful":

This perspective makes social arrangements appear inevitable, helping those at the bottom of the stratification system accept and come to terms with their situation. It can make life more bearable by encouraging individuals to philosophically accept their circumstances.

Religion and social control
From a Marxist perspective, religion is not merely a means to alleviate the suffering caused by oppression but also serves as a tool for perpetuating that oppression. It functions as a form of social control, sustaining the existing exploitative system and reinforcing class distinctions. According to Marx, Christianity promotes traits such as cowardice, self-contempt, and submissiveness among the working class, effectively keeping them in their subordinate position. By making their unsatisfactory lives more bearable, religion discourages people from seeking change and improvement in their circumstances. Offering a sense of hope in desperate situations, religion prevents thoughts of rebellion and upheaval.

• Religion also plays a role in distorting reality by providing explanations and justifications for social conditions. This leads to the creation of a false class consciousness, which prevents members of the oppressed class from recognizing their true situation and interests. Consequently, religion diverts people's attention away from the actual causes of their oppression, thereby helping to maintain the power of the ruling class.
• It is important to note that religion is not only relevant to the oppressed but is also adopted by ruling classes as a means of justifying their privileged position. For instance, religious doctrines can be used to rationalize social inequality for both the wealthy and the poor. Ruling classes often directly support religious institutions to further their interests, as observed in historical examples such as feudal England, where lords' power was often legitimized through religious endorsements from the pulpit. In exchange for this backing, landlords would frequently provide generous funding to the established church.
• Marxists argue that if oppression were to be eradicated, religion would no longer serve a purpose. Marx stated that religion is an illusory force that revolves around individuals as long as they do not revolve around themselves. In a genuinely socialist society, individuals would be self-reliant, and religion - along with other distortions of reality - would cease to exist.

Evidence to support Marxism

There is substantial evidence supporting the Marxist perspective on the role of religion in society, particularly in the context of power dynamics and social control. Historical examples include the caste system in traditional India, which was justified by Hindu religious beliefs, and the divine right of kings and queens in medieval Europe. The Egyptian Pharaohs embodied both god and king, and slave-owners in the southern states of America often encouraged the conversion of slaves to Christianity to exert control over them. During the early days of the industrial revolution in England, religion was used by employers as a means to control the masses and encourage hard work and sobriety.

• Contemporary examples supporting the Marxist view can be found in the United States, where conservative Protestant groups, such as the New Christian Right, consistently support right-wing political candidates in the Republican Party and oppose liberal candidates in the Democratic Party. The New Christian Right has backed political figures like Ronald Reagan and George W. Bush, both of whom held morally conservative views during their presidencies. An exit poll conducted during Bush's re-election in 2004 revealed that two-thirds of voters who attended church more than once a week voted for him (Schifferes, 2004).
• According to Steve Bruce (1988), the New Christian Right advocates for aggressive anti-communist foreign policy, increased military spending, reduced government intervention, decreased welfare spending, and fewer restrictions on free enterprise. While Bruce emphasizes that their influence on American politics has been limited, it is evident that they tend to defend the interests of the wealthy and powerful at the expense of other groups in society.

Overall, these historical and contemporary examples provide evidence for the Marxist perspective that religion can be used as a tool for social control and the maintenance of power dynamics within society.

Evaluation of Marxism

The evaluation of Marxism reveals certain limitations in its explanation of religion. While Marxism posits that religion serves to legitimize power and justify alienation or privilege, evidence suggests that religion does not always function in this manner. Instead, it can sometimes act as a catalyst for change. This alternative view on religion is reflected in the later works of Engels and the perspectives of contemporary neo-Marxists.

• Marxism fails to account for the existence of religion in situations where it does not contribute to the oppression of a particular social class. Moreover, it does not clarify why religion might persist even when, theoretically, oppression has ceased. For instance, in the USSR following the 1917 revolution, the communist state discouraged religious practices and imposed restrictions on religious activities. Despite these efforts, religion did not vanish under communism as Marx had predicted.
• Studies conducted after the fall of communism in Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union showed that religious beliefs remained widespread in these regions. For example, in 1990, 97% of people in Poland claimed to believe in God, while in Russia, the figure had risen from 35% in 1990 to 61% in 1999. Church attendance in Russia also increased from 6% in the early 1990s to 10% by 1999/2000. These findings indicate that communism's attempts to suppress religion were only partially successful, and that religious beliefs and activities rebounded once communism ended.

Conclusion

While religion has been an essential aspect of human society, providing social solidarity and inner peace, it is crucial to recognize its potential dysfunctions. The functionalist approach, though insightful in understanding the positive contributions of religion, often overlooks the negative aspects, such as inhibiting social change, hindering societal adaptation, increasing conflict, obstructing new identities, and promoting dependence. A comprehensive understanding of religion's role in society requires a balanced analysis of both its positive and negative aspects.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) of Theories of Religion

What is totemism, and how does it relate to the concept of religion in society?

Totemism is a fundamental form of religion observed in various Australian Aboriginal societies, characterized by the division of society into clans with specific totems. These totems, typically animals or plants, serve as symbols representing the clan and its connection to a totemic principle or god. Totemism highlights the symbolic nature of religious practices and the role of religion in reinforcing social bonds and collective identity.

How does Durkheim's theory of religion explain the role of religion in society?

Durkheim posits that religion serves to reinforce the collective conscience, which is essential for social order, control, solidarity, and cooperation. By ascribing sacredness to the values and beliefs that underpin social life, religion gives them more power to guide human behavior. According to Durkheim, religious worship is essentially the worship of the social group or society itself.

What are the main criticisms of the functionalist approach to understanding religion?

The functionalist approach is criticized for focusing mainly on the positive aspects of religion, such as promoting harmony, integration, and solidarity. It tends to ignore the instances where religion can be a source of division and conflict within a community, and overlooks the hostilities that can exist between different religious groups within the same society.

How does Parsons view the role of religion in society?

Parsons views religion as a solution to specific issues that arise in all societies, such as unforeseen and uncontrollable events, uncertainty, and the need for meaning in life. Religion helps people adjust to and cope with these issues, contributing to the maintenance of order and stability in society.

What are some examples of the dysfunctions of religion in society?

Some dysfunctions of religion include the inhibition of protests and social change, hindrance to societal adaptation, increase in conflict and difficulty in finding realistic solutions, obstruction to the development of new identities, and the promotion of dependence and irresponsibility. These dysfunctions highlight the negative side of religion and its potential to disrupt social cohesion and progress.