Transformation from Rig Vedic period to the later Vedic period | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

The Later Vedic Period: A Time of Change

The later Vedic period, spanning from 1000 BC to 500 BC, marked a significant transformation in the Rig Vedic civilization. During this time, the Aryans began to expand their territorial boundaries and incorporate non-Aryans into their society.

Expansion and Conquest

• The Aryans expanded their land territory, conquering surrounding regions and integrating non-Aryan populations into their communities.
• As the territory grew, the power of the kings increased, reflecting the expanding influence and authority of the ruling class.

Geographical Expansion

• By the end of the later Vedic age, the Aryans had extended their territory south beyond the Vindhyas and north into the Gangetic Valley, significantly enlarging their domain.

Introduction of the Caste System

• The most significant change during this period was the introduction of the caste system, which was absent in the Rig Vedic period. This system stratified society into different groups, influencing social structure and relationships.

Overall, the later Vedic period was marked by territorial expansion, increased political power, and the establishment of the caste system, shaping the course of Indian civilization.

Everyday Life in the Later Vedic Period

Life during the Later Vedic period, as described in the texts, shows a shift from the earlier Rig Vedic times. The society became more complex with advancements in political organization, social structure, and economic activities.

Agriculture and Land Use

• Agriculture took on a more significant role, with the cultivation of cereals such as barley (yava), wheat (godhuma), and rice (vrihi). There are mentions of various agricultural activities like sowing, ploughing, reaping, and threshing. The Atharva Veda even includes charms to protect crops from pests and to prevent drought, highlighting the challenges farmers faced.
• Land was typically occupied by extended families, and the clan had general rights over it. The concept of private property in land was not fully developed during this period.

Economic Activities

• The household was the fundamental unit of labor. There was minimal use of slaves for productive work, and the concept of hired labor was not prevalent.

Gift and Wealth

• Hymns praising gifts (dana-stutis) in the later Rig Veda highlight the practice of kings giving away cows, horses, chariots, gold, clothes, and even female slaves to priests. This sheds light on what was valued in society and the concentration of wealth among rulers.
• References to land gifts appear in later Vedic texts, but attitudes towards this practice were mixed. For instance, the Aitareya Brahmana mentions a king gifting substantial wealth and land to a Brahmana, while also recounting stories where the earth goddess intervened to prevent land gifts, indicating a complex relationship with land ownership.

Technological Developments

Introduction of Iron

• The later Vedic texts are the first to mention iron in the Indian subcontinent. Terms like krishna-ayas and shyama-ayas in the Yajur Veda and Atharva Veda refer to this metal. There are indications that iron was used in agriculture, with heavy ploughs possibly made of iron being driven by numerous oxen.
• The Taittiriya Samhita and the Atharva Veda also suggest the use of iron in various agricultural tools, linking iron with the peasantry and subjects.

Crafts and Occupations

• Later Vedic literature lists various artisans and craftspeople, including carpenters, chariot makers, metal workers, and potters. There are detailed lists of occupations in texts like the Vajasaneyi Samhita and Taittiriya Brahmana, indicating a diverse range of vocations.
• Transport was primarily through ox-drawn wagons, with chariots used for warfare and sport. While boats are mentioned, it is unclear whether they were used for river or sea travel.

Social Structure and Education

• Education during this time, as described in texts like the Shatapatha Brahmana, was largely restricted to elite males and centered around the relationship between teacher and pupil. The upanayana ceremony marked the initiation of young boys into the stage of celibate studenthood.

Leisure and Pastimes

• Leisure activities such as chariot racing, dicing, and music were popular. Various musical instruments were in use, and performances by actors or dancers were common.

Food and Clothing

• Diet included various preparations like apupa,odana, and karambha, with milk products and occasional meat consumption. Clothing was primarily woven from cotton or wool, with mentions of woven clothes and ornaments for protection against evil.
• In summary, the Later Vedic period was marked by increased complexity in social and economic structures, technological advancements like the introduction of iron, and a rich tapestry of cultural and leisure activities.

Gender and the Household

• The household was a crucial institution, not only for its members but also for the larger social and political units of which it was a part. A series of household rituals legitimized the householder’s control over the productive and reproductive resources of the household.
• In later Vedic literature, the variety of household forms of earlier times made way for an idealized griha unit headed by the grihapati. Only a married man, accompanied by his legitimate wife, could become the yajamana in a sacrifice.

Marriage and Family Structure

• Marriage (vivaha) was essential for patrilineage continuation.
• Relations between husband and wife (pati and patni) and father and son were hierarchically organized.
• Women were increasingly identified in terms of their relations with men, with terms like stri, yosha, and jaya associated with wifehood and motherhood.
• The grihapati controlled the household's productive resources and his wife’s reproductive potential, maintained by a domestic ideology of dominance and subordination.

Inheritance and Rituals

• Productive resources were transferred from father to son, with rituals like the agnyadheya emphasizing ties with patrilineal ancestors (pitris).
• The Grihyasutras, dating back to this period, listed types of marriage.
• Later Vedic texts discussed marriage by capture and a woman choosing her spouse, with polygyny being more common than polyandry.

Marriage Practices

• Kings could have multiple wives and concubines.
• The Aitareya Brahmana noted that while a man could have several wives, one husband sufficed for a woman.
• The Maitrayani Samhita mentioned Manu's 10 wives.
• A woman was married not only to a man but into his family, with practices like a widow marrying her younger brother-in-law.

Marriage Ceremonies

• The Surya-sukta (Rig Veda 10.85) reflected later Vedic marriage ideas, portraying the bride as both a valuable asset and a potential threat.
• Marriage ceremonies primarily involved the bride, groom, and their immediate families, with the priest playing a significant role in the Atharva Veda (14.1–2).

Women's Roles and Status

• Women were praised in some texts, like the Shatapatha Brahmana (5.2.1.10), which described the wife as completing her husband.
• However, women were generally excluded from Vedic studies and could not perform shrauta sacrifices independently.
• Later texts even suggested replacing a wife with an effigy during sacrifices.

Menstrual Taboos and Social Expectations

• Later Vedic texts regarded women's menstrual blood as polluting, with menstruating wives excluded from sacrifices and other rituals.
• Women were expected to conform to submissive roles, with texts like the Shatapatha Brahmana (10.5.2.9) outlining ideal womanly behavior.
• Spinsterhood was viewed negatively, and the desire for sons was prevalent, with rituals like pumsavana aimed at ensuring male offspring.
• Women were seen as gifts or commodities, with their roles in ritual gift-giving limited.

Women's Work and Social Change

• References to women's work in later Vedic texts included tasks like tending cattle, weaving, and embroidering.
• Women like Apala and Vishpala were noted for their contributions, with some participating in philosophical debates.

Religion, Ritual, and Philosophy

• Later Vedic literature presents various ideas on creation. The Purusha-sukta describes creation as the outcome of a primordial sacrifice, while other hymns depict it as emerging from the sun or from Hiranyagarbha(the golden embryo).
• A hymn dedicated to the god Vishvakarman(10.81) envisions the creator god as an artisan, taking on roles such as a sculptor, smith, woodcutter, or carpenter, and as the first sacrificer and the sacrificial offering. The Nasadiya hymn in Book 10 of the Rig Veda Samhita offers a profound exploration of the mysteries of creation.
• In the family books of the Rig Veda, certain gods were brought together by invoking them in the same sacrificial rituals. In the later parts of the text, some hymns emphasized the connections among them. There are 40 hymns in the Rig Veda addressed to Vishvadevas—all the gods. Some hymns speak of the various gods as manifestations of the same divine being. Thus, Rig Veda 1.164 points out the differences in the names Agni,Indra, and Vayu, and goes on to assert that there is one being, whom the poets speak of as many (ekam sad vipra bahudha vadanti).

The Sacrificial Ritual of the Brahmana Texts

• The Brahmana texts depict a scenario where sacrifices had evolved into longer, more elaborate, and expensive affairs. The act of sacrifice is presented as the creative force behind the world, and its correct performance is deemed essential for regulating life and the cosmos. Some sacrifices involved the participation of a single priest, while others required many, with ritual specialists playing a crucial role. The god Prajapati, closely associated with sacrifice, emerges as the principal deity in the Brahmanas.
• The agnihotra, a simple domestic sacrifice, was to be performed daily by the head of a dvija household, morning and evening. It involved pouring oblations of milk and sometimes vegetal substances into the fire, dedicated to the god Agni. Additionally, there were periodic new-moon and full-moon sacrifices, as well as those marking the beginning of the three seasons. More grandiose and intricate sacrifices, requiring the involvement of numerous ritual specialists and their assistants, were likely performed by the wealthy and by kings.
• The yajamana, or the person overseeing the sacrifice, underwent a diksha or consecration before the ritual and had to adhere to several rules until its completion. The dakshina, a significant part of the sacrifice, grew larger as the rituals became more complex. Various complex sacrificial rituals were linked to kingship.
• The vajapeya ritual was associated with the attainment of power and prosperity and included fertility rites, such as a ritual chariot race where the rajan raced against his kinsmen and emerged victorious. The ashvamedha was a sacrifice tied to claims of political paramountcy and incorporated several fertility rites. The rajasuya was the royal consecration ceremony, involving agrarian fertility rites, a ritual cattle raid where the rajan raided his kinsmen's cattle, and a game of dice that the king won. Symbolically, the rajasuya presented the king as central to the cyclical processes of the universe's regeneration.

The Upanishads

• The oldest Upanishads are written in prose, while the later ones are in verse. The Brihadaranyaka and Chhandogya Upanishads are among the earliest. The Upanishads and Aranyakas address similar themes, and the distinction between these two categories is not always clear. For instance, the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad is considered both an Aranyaka and an Upanishad. Early Upanishads date back to around 1000–500 BCE, while many others are from a later period.
• These texts mark the initial clear expression of key ideas and practices associated with Hindu and certain other Indian philosophical and religious traditions. These include concepts like karma,rebirth, and the notion of a single, unseen, eternal reality underlying everything. The Upanishads also explore practices such as meditation and yoga.
• Given that the Upanishads were composed by various individuals across different regions of north India over many centuries, it is not surprising that they do not present a uniform system of ideas. They address numerous issues, with a particular focus on the fundamental concepts of atman and brahman(not to be confused with the god Brahma). A central concern of Upanishadic thought is the exploration and explanation of the meanings and interrelations of atman and brahman.
• The word brahman derives from the root brih, meaning to be strong or firm. The term, found in the Rig Veda, signifies something that grants prosperity, a vital force that strengthens and animates. The Upanishads make various attempts to describe brahman, reflecting the challenges in defining this concept.

The Kena Upanishad(2.1) states that even the gods were unable to comprehend brahman, and those who believe they have understood it often have not. The Taittiriya Upanishad(3.1.1) describes brahman as the source of all beings, the sustainer of all, and the ultimate destination upon death. Brahman is portrayed as the eternal, imperishable reality within the universe.

• In the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad(3.8.11), the sage Yajnavalkya explains to Gargi that the imperishable brahman sees but cannot be seen, thinks but cannot be thought of, and perceives but cannot be perceived. The Mundaka Upanishad(1.1.7) illustrates that just as a spider spins and gathers its web, plants grow from the earth, and hair grows from a living person, everything in this world arises from the imperishable brahman. Later Upanishads sometimes describe brahman in the context of a deity.
• If brahman represents the ultimate reality pervading the universe, atman signifies the ultimate reality within an individual’s self—the imperishable essential self. The Upanishads offer numerous explanations of atman. The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad(3.7.23) characterizes atman as the knowing subject within us, capable of seeing, hearing, comprehending, and knowing, yet remaining unseen, unheard, and uncomprehended.
• In the Chhandogya Upanishad(3.14.2–3), atman is described as lying deep within the heart, smaller than a grain of rice, barley, or mustard seed, and even smaller than a millet grain or kernel. Paradoxically, it is also described as larger than the earth, the intermediate region, the sky, and even all the worlds combined.
• The term maya appears in the Shvetashvatara Upanishad. Scholars debate whether this concept or something similar is present in earlier Upanishads. Maya, often translated as ‘illusion,’ can also be interpreted as ignorance (avidya), the inability to realize oneness with brahman, or the creative power of ishvara(god) from a human perspective.
• The notion of a cycle of death and rebirth is evident in both the Brahmanas and Upanishads. The Shatapatha Brahmana states that those who fail to perform sacrificial rites correctly will be reborn and face death again. It describes a realm of material pleasures for those who perform sacrifices and a hell for wrongdoers. The text also mentions the dead facing two fires—good people pass through, while wrongdoers perish in the flames. A person is reborn after death, facing punishment or reward for their deeds.
• Some Upanishads elaborate on the doctrine of transmigration. Death and rebirth are linked with ignorance and desire, with deliverance attainable through knowledge. The Upanishads refer to three realms: the worlds of humans, ancestors (pitris), and gods. Those destined for rebirth go to the world of the fathers after death, while those destined for immortality go to the world of the gods.
• The goal of Upanishadic thought is the realization of brahman. Liberation (moksha,mukti) from the cycle of samsara can only be achieved through such knowledge. This knowledge (jnana) cannot be obtained through mere intellectual effort; it is intuitive, experiential, and transformative, coming upon the seeker as a revelation.
• Later Upanishads, like the Shvetashvatara, emphasize yogic meditation as a means to realize brahman. Performing sacrifices and adhering to an ethical code were deemed insufficient for this purpose.
• In the Chhandogya Upanishad(3.8.11), Yajnavalkya tells Gargi that even extensive offerings, sacrifices, and austerities would not be equivalent to the knowledge of brahman. The same text (2.23.1) asserts that individuals who performed sacrifices, recited the Veda, gave gifts (dana), practiced austerities (tapa), or led a celibate life of study gained worlds earned by merit. In contrast, a person steadfast in the knowledge of brahman attains immortality.
• In later times, various interpretations of Upanishadic thought emerged, collectively known as Vedanta(literally, ‘end of the Veda’; also called Uttara Mimamsa). Upanishadic thought encompasses diverse ideas regarding atman, brahman, and the world, with statements like tat tvam asi(you are that),aham Brahm-asmi(I am brahman), and brahma-atma-aikyam(unity of brahman and atman) open to different interpretations.

The Bhagavad Gita blends aspects of Upanishadic philosophy with a doctrine advocating righteous action. One of the most influential interpretations of the Upanishads came from the 9th-century thinker Shankara.

• According to Shankara’s monistic Advaita Vedanta(non-dualist Vedanta), the Upanishads convey that there is only one unified reality—brahman—and everything else is not fully real. However, a pantheistic strand in Upanishadic thought identifies the universe with brahman, while a theistic strand envisions brahman as a god governing the world. Given the diversity and complexity of Upanishadic ideas, later thinkers interpreted them in various ways.
• The Upanishads are often perceived as anti-sacrifice and anti-Brahmana. The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad claims that performance of sacrifice leads to the world of the fathers (pitriyana), while knowledge leads to the world of the gods. Upanishadic knowledge is frequently associated with kings or Kshatriyas. Instances exist where Brahmanas are taught the knowledge of brahman by kings like Ajatashatru,Ashvapati, and Pravahana. In the Chhandogya Upanishad(1.8–9), Pravahana informs Uddalaka Aruni that this knowledge has never been possessed by a Brahmana until then. In the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad(3–4), Yajnavalkya’s views are opposed by Brahmanas but welcomed by king Janaka.

However, the inclusion of the Upanishads in the Vedic corpus as part of shruti cautions against overstating this argument. There are connections between Upanishadic ideas and early Vedic texts. Moreover, the Upanishads do not outright reject sacrifice; instead, they reframe it symbolically and allegorically. Knowledge of the symbolic meanings represented in rituals becomes more significant than the ritual's performance itself.

Popular Beliefs and Practices

• The Brahmanas served as guides for priests conducting sacrifices, while the Upanishads represent a deep, mystical pursuit of a unique type of self-awareness. 
• Despite the possibility that some ideas within these texts were more widely shared, the Brahmanas, Upanishads, and Aranyakas are not accurately described as texts that reflect common beliefs and practices. 
• In contrast, the Atharva Veda includes various charms and spells aimed at addressing everyday concerns such as wealth, children, prosperity, and health. It also features hymns related to marriage and death. Although the Atharva Veda is considered the most recent Veda in terms of language and form, many of the concepts and practices it contains are clearly quite ancient.

End of the Later Vedic Period

• The later Vedic period concluded around 500 BC. Toward the end of this era, the Vedic people began to expand their territory from the Doab region to Videha in the north and Koshala in the east.
• In the northern part of Bihar and the eastern region of Uttar Pradesh, the Vedic people encountered communities that used black and red earthen pots and copper tools. In the western part of Uttar Pradesh, they came across groups that utilized pots of red or ochre color along with copper implements. The Vedic people also encountered speakers of the Munda language.
• Despite facing various opponents during their expansion, the Vedic people succeeded due to their use of horse-drawn chariots and iron weapons. Additionally, their opponents did not occupy a vast area and were relatively small in number.

Conclusion

• 1000-500 BC– Later Vedic Age
• 950 BC– Mahabharata was fought
• 900 BC– The Kuru kingdom was formed
• 800 BC– The Vedic people started using iron
• 600 BC– The Upanishads were compiled
• 500 BC– The Vedic people spread to Videha and Koshala; The Kuru and Panchala kingdoms declined.