Nitin Singhania Summary: Tribal Culture in India | History for UPSC CSE PDF Download

Introduction

India, often hailed as a land of diverse cultures, is rich in tribal communities spanning various states. These tribes, with their distinct identities, languages, beliefs, arts, music, and dances, form a vibrant tapestry of cultural heritage. This chapter delves into the diverse tribal cultures of India, celebrating their uniqueness and the valuable contributions they make to the nation's cultural fabric.

Tribes in India

The term 'Tribe' in sociology refers to a socio-political unit comprising families, clans, or groups with common ancestry and culture. Its origins trace back to medieval English in the 13th century, indicating the biblical connotation of 'the twelve tribes of Israel.' Derived from Old French tribu and Latin tribus, denoting the tripartite ethnic division of the Roman state.

In India, tribes, also known as Adivasi, constitute around 8.6% of the population and are considered Scheduled Tribes (STs). These indigenous people have a longstanding presence in the Indian subcontinent, with early fossils like Ramapithecus found in the Siwalik foothills. Anthropologically, India's population can be categorized into six main ethnic groups:

1. Negritos: The earliest inhabitants, such as the Andamanis tribe.
2. Austrics: Followed by the Austrics, considered main builders of the Indus Valley Civilization.
3. Mongo-loids: Found mainly in the Northeastern states and Ladakh.
4. Dravidian: Spread across India, constituting a significant portion of the population.
5. Western Brachycephals: Represented by the Parsi population in India.
6. Nordics: Indo-Aryans, the last immigrants into India, with various tribes and cultures.

Culture, reflecting values, customs, rituals, and laws, encompasses language, religion, music, dance, and art forms over time.

Tribal Languages in India

Indian languages, shaped by diverse ethnic groups, can be classified into six main groups:

• Indo-Aryan
• Dravidian
• Sino-Tibetan
• Negroid
• Austric
• Others

The linguistic diversity in India is influenced by its tribal population, often resulting in multiple dialects within a single tribal group. Tribal languages, considered "folk" languages, are passed down orally through songs, folktales, and legends. Indian tribal languages, such as Garo and Chakma, exhibit order and organization, reflecting a rich cultural history.

Indo-Aryan Tribal Languages

Speakers of Indo-Aryan tribal languages are spread across vast regions in India, including the northern, eastern, western, and central parts. This linguistic family encompasses over 574 mother tongues. Notable Indo-Aryan tribal languages include:

• Bhili: Spoken in Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, and Maharashtra.
• Khandeshi: A group of languages with nearly five main mother tongues, spoken by almost 1.2 million people. Includes Kawari and Katkari languages used in Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, and Maharashtra.
• Kishtwari: Spoken by tribes in Jammu and Kashmir.
• Koch: Used by tribes in Tripura, Assam, and Cooch Behar district of West Bengal.
• Konkani and Goanese: Popular Indo-Aryan tribal languages spoken in coastal areas of Maharashtra and Goa.

Tibeto-Burman Tribal Language

This language family is predominantly spoken in the northern and northeastern regions of India, with linguistic similarities to those spoken in Myanmar (formerly Burma). The Bodo sub-family within the Tibeto-Burman language family includes nine major languages—Bodo, Garo, Tripuri, Mikir, Rabha, Dimasa, Lalung, Deori, and Koch—spoken by over half of the tribal population in North Cachar Hills in Assam, Meghalaya, and Tripura.

There are also smaller sub-groups within the Tibeto-Burman family, such as the Naga group with twenty-four languages spoken in Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh, and North Manipur Hills, and the Kuki-Chin group with languages like Lushai/Mizo, Thado, and Paite, spoken in Mizoram, Manipur, and Tripura.

Bodo, a language in the Sino-Tibetan group of Tibeto-Burman, is widely spoken by the Bodo people in the northeastern region of India and neighboring Nepal. Recognized as one of the official languages of Assam, Bodo shares linguistic connections with Dimasa in Assam and Garo in Meghalaya.

Dravidian Tribal Languages

This language family, primarily spoken in the Indian subcontinent, encompasses tribal languages predominantly found in the southern parts of India.

• Some initial languages in this family, like Kudu, are not considered part of it as they have merged with the Kannada language. Notable languages within this group include Kolami, Kui, Konda, Koya, Gondi, Oraon/Kurukh, and Parji.
• Kaikadi is a significant Dravidian tribal language spoken by the Kaikadi tribes in various parts of Karnataka and Maharashtra. Another Dravidian tribal language, Kanilkaran, is spoken in Ernakulam, Thiruvananthapuram, Kozhikode districts of Kerala, and Tirunelveli district of Tamil Nadu.
• Konda-Dora, another Dravidian language, is spoken in multiple areas of Odisha and Andhra Pradesh. Koraga is spoken in parts of Kerala, while Kota is mainly spoken in parts of Tamil Nadu.
• Koya is spoken in various parts of Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Maharashtra, and Andhra Pradesh, with its main dialects being Podia, Malakanagiri Koya, and Chintoor Koya.
• Kamar, another tribal language belonging to the Dravidian family, is spoken by tribal communities in Rewa district of Madhya Pradesh, Raipur district of Chhattisgarh, and parts of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Maharashtra, and Odisha.

Austro-Asiatic Tribal Languages

These languages are primarily spoken in the states of West Bengal, Jharkhand, and some parts of the northeastern states of India.

• Kharia Language: Kharia is an Indian tribal language belonging to the Austro-Asiatic language family. It is predominantly spoken by tribal communities in the states of Jharkhand, Odisha, Assam, eastern Madhya Pradesh, southern Bihar, and some parts of West Bengal.
• Santhali Language: Santhali is an Indian tribal language belonging to the Santhali sub-family of the Austro-Asiatic language family. Closely associated with Ho and Mundari languages, Santhali is spoken in states such as Assam, Bihar, Jharkhand, West Bengal, Odisha, Tripura, and neighboring countries like Nepal, Bangladesh, and Bhutan. The Santhali community, considered the largest tribal community, uses a dialect of the Munda tribal language. The Santhali language, believed to be older than the Aryan language, is known for its rich cultural heritage, though it is not widely used for literary works or religious documents anymore. The language uses a numerical classifier distinct from those of the Dravidian family of languages.
• Khasi Language: Khasi, a popular Indian tribal language in the Austro-Asiatic family, is primarily spoken by tribal people in the state of Meghalaya. Part of the Khasi-Khmuic group of languages, Khasi has connections with the Munda branch of the Austro-Asiatic group, mainly found in the east-central region of India. While most speakers are in Meghalaya, it is also spoken in the hill districts of Assam and some areas of Bangladesh. Khasi language, rich in legends and folk stories, did not have its own script historically.

It has various dialects, including Standard Khasi, Langrin, Bhoi, Nongtung, where Standard Khasi, Langrin, and Lyngngam are similar, while Bhoi and Nongtung differ significantly.

Some Prominent Tribal Languages in India

Languages spoken by the tribes in India include:

• Gujarati, Dhanki, Dhodia, Hundhari, Gadiali, Gamit
• Halbi, Harauti, Hindi, Jaunsari, Kachchi, Konkani
• Nimari, Oriya, Rathi, Sardohi, Shina, Tharu, Wagri
• Bhatri, Bhilli, Bhunjia, Chakma, Chhattisga
• Gavti, Garasia/Girasia, Gojri/Gujjari, Hajong
• Marathi, Mavchi, Mewnri, Nagpuri, Naikadi
• Warli, among many others.

Some prevalent tribal languages include Saurashtri.

Garo: Garo is spoken by tribes in Western Assam and Nagaland. The language has several dialects, including Atong.

Abujmaria: Spoken by the people of Abujmar hills in Bastar district.

The Paite, Thadou, Hmar, and Tanglhul languages are among the tribal languages spoken in northeastern parts of India. Some tribes using these languages include Abujmaria, Garo, Aaria Tsangla, and the tribal communities residing around Garo Hills, Meghalaya, and Tripura. Dialects of this language include Megam, Chisak, and Gadaba, spoken by the people of Koraput district in Odisha.

Ariya: Spoken by the tribal communities of Madhya Pradesh.

Tsangla: Spoken in some villages of Arunachal Pradesh.

Tribal Music and Dance

Dance forms of Tribes

Tribal music and dance in India hold profound significance in the cultural heritage of the country. These art forms serve not only as expressive communication but also play a crucial role in preserving indigenous traditions, fostering social cohesion, and promoting a sense of identity among tribal communities. Beyond their aesthetic values, tribal music and dance act as unifying forces, strengthening social bonds and creating a sense of belongingness. In the face of modern challenges, these art forms play a vital role in safeguarding indigenous knowledge and customs.

Examples of tribal music and dance from different regions of India include:

North-Eastern Region

• Naga Tribes
  • Sekrenyi Dance: Celebrates purification and renewal during the Sekrenyi festival.
  • Zeliang Dance: Performed by the Zeliang tribe, depicting their agrarian lifestyle.
• Mishing Tribe (Assam)
  • Bihu Husori: Traditional music and dance during the Bihu festival in Assam. Village elders move from household to household singing Bihu carols known as Husori.
  • Ali-Aye Ligang Dance: Celebrates agriculture and reflects their reverence for nature.
• Garo Tribe (Meghalaya)
  • Wangala Dance: A joyful performance expressing gratitude to the Sun God for a good harvest.
  • Dama Gogata Dance: Symbolizes unity and harmony within the community.

Western Region

• Bhil Tribe (Gujarat, Rajasthan)
  • Bhavai Dance: A dynamic dance form narrating mythological stories.
  • Tera Tali Dance: Performed with cymbals tied to different parts of the body, creating rhythmic sounds.
• Warli Tribe (Maharashtra)
  • Tarpa Dance: Accompanied by soulful music and reflective of their agrarian life.
  • Gauri Dance: Depicts celebrations during festivals and weddings.

Eastern Region

• Santhal Tribe (Jharkhand, West Bengal)
  • Baha Dance: Celebrates life and nature during the Spring festival.
  • Chhau Dance: A blend of martial arts and storytelling, performed during various occasions.
• Bondo Tribe (Odisha)
  • Gotul Dance: Graceful dance form performed during weddings and festivals.
  • Saura Dance: Reflects their connection with nature and ancient traditions.

Southern Region

• Irula Tribe (Tamil Nadu)
  • Puliarai Dance: Expresses their intimate relationship with nature and their snake-catching skills.
  • Kaliyal Dance: Depicts agricultural activities and captures their daily life.
• Kurava Tribe (Kerala)
  • Mudiyettu: A ritualistic dance-drama narrating tales of deities and folklore.
  • Kolkali: A group dance performed with rhythmic steps and sticks.

Tribes of Chhattisgarh and Madhya Pradesh

• Gondi Songs: Songs of the Gond tribe reflecting their history, daily life, and relationship with nature.
• Gaur Maria Dance: A dynamic dance form expressing joy and celebration performed during marriage ceremonies in the plateau of Bastar.
• Karma Dance: Performed during the annual Karma festival, worshiping the God of fate, known as Karam Devta.
• Saila Dance: Reflects their deep connection with nature and forests by Gonds, Oraons, and Baigas.

Various Songs/Music of Tribes

Most tribes in India have songs for different types such as greeting songs, lullabies, love and courtship songs, ballads, and humorous songs. These songs are usually sung on the occasion of certain festivals and celebrations where members of the tribes dance and sing for the pure joy of it. On such occasions, one may also hear songs describing their ancestry and the origin of the tribe.

Some prominent Tribal or Folk music forms of India include:

• Relo: A form of tribal song of Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh performed by the Muria tribe and Sing Mari tribes residing in the Bastar district.
• Dhankul Geet: A style of folk song performed by tribal people native to Chhattisgarh. It is a religious song performed during special occasions, mainly during the rituals for invoking Goddess Danteshwari.
• Bihugeet: Performed during the Bihu festival, it is melodious music with simple lyrics describing the daily life activities of the Assamese.
• Zeliang: A beautiful and vibrant form of folk music performed primarily by the Zeliang tribe of Nagaland, talking about the history of Nagaland.
• Maand: Folk music of Rajasthan played on Sarangee and other percussion instruments.
• Mire Domung: Folk song of the Adi tribe of Arunachal Pradesh, a source of pleasure, happiness, and a way to express sorrows.
• Baryi: Folk music of  Arunachal Pradesh

Tribal Religion

Religion holds significant importance in tribal culture and heritage. While some tribal members have adopted variations of Hinduism, Islam, or Christianity, a considerable number still adhere to their traditional tribal religions, exhibiting varying degrees of syncretism. Animism and various forms of pagan worship continue to be prevalent in these communities, with their festivals characterized by colorful and joyous celebrations.

• A significant portion of the tribal population in India faces challenges, with issues like lack of education persisting, particularly in rural and tribal areas of the Indian subcontinent. For instance, the Gujjar tribal community in Himachal Pradesh has predominantly adopted Islam.
• In some cases, tribal religions have influenced mainstream religious practices. For example, the Hindu festival of Diwali, originally believed to be a festival of the aborigines, has been adopted by Hindus. There are also beliefs that Hindu practices, such as the worship of Lord Shiva and Parvati, were borrowed from the Adivasis of Gujarat.
• Christianity has brought about significant changes, often termed as a 'total transformation.' However, the largest and most well-known tribal religion in India is 'Saridharam,' practiced by the Santhal tribes in Jharkhand, West Bengal, Odisha, and neighboring regions. The Santhals and other Indian tribes follow their own traditional tribal religions, featuring distinct Gods and Goddesses and separate places of worship unrelated to Hindu or other Indo-Aryan pantheons.

Sarna religion, followed by the Munda and Oraon tribes, is another notable tribal religion. Additionally, various folk religions in India include:

• Animism: A worldview where non-human entities possess a spiritual essence; an estimated 1-5% of India's population follows animism.
• Ahom religion: The ethnic religion of the Ahom people, based on ritual-oriented ancestor worship involving animal sacrifice.
• Bathouism (or Bathou): The folk religion of the Boro people of Assam, centered around the worship of five principles (air, fire, earth, water, and ether).
• Donyi-Polo or Donyi-Poloism: An indigenous religion of animistic and shamanic type practiced by Tibeto-Burman peoples in Arunachal Pradesh and Assam.
• Kirat Mundum: An animistic folk religion indigenous to the Kirati ethnic groups of Nepal, Darjeeling, and Sikkim.
• Sanamahism or Meiteism or Lainingthouism: An ethnic religion of the Meitei people in Manipur, Northeast India, characterized by polytheism.
• Sarmaism: An Indian religious belief in the eastern regions, centered on worship at Sarna, sacred groves in the Chota Nagpur Plateau region.

Tribal Art

Tribal art forms play a crucial role in the diverse cultural heritage of Indian tribal culture, showcasing aesthetic mastery and preserving traditional art through generations. These art forms encompass design, painting, and handicrafts crafted from bamboo, wood, and metals.

Here are some notable and unique tribal art forms from India:

• Warli Painting: Originating from Maharashtra, this indigenous tribal art features simple wall paintings with white designs on a dark red background. Utilizing basic geometrical shapes like squares, circles, and triangles, Warli art depicts scenes from everyday life, such as dancing, fishing, farming, and festivals.
• Bhil Art: The Bhils, India's second-largest tribal group residing in Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, and Maharashtra, adorn the clay walls of their homes with pictures using natural dyes. Traditionally painted with neem sticks and twigs, these images showcase the Bhil people's creativity.

• Gond Art: Executed by the Gond tribe in Mandla, Madhya Pradesh, Gond Paintings decorate tribal homes. Using dashes, dots, and vibrant colors, these paintings draw inspiration from folktales and Gond mythology, employing natural ingredients like charcoal, colored soil, plant sap, and leaves.
• Pithora Paintings: Created by Bhilala and Rathwa tribes in central Gujarat, Pithora Paintings depict Gods, Goddesses, nature, and agriculture. These paintings, often portraying Pithora Dev, involve a unique process known as Lipna, where two layers of cow dung and a single layer of chalk powder are spread on the wall.

• Phad Paintings: A religious style of scroll painting practiced in Rajasthan, Phad paintings feature folk gods Pabuji or Devnarayan. Painted on canvas or fabric called phad, these artworks use a flat perspective and vibrant colors, with gum and burnished surfaces enhancing longevity.
• Traditional Tribal Jewellery: Tribes from Odisha, including Bonda, Kondh, Saora, Gadaba, adorn themselves with intricately crafted metal ornaments. Brass or aluminum rings piled around their necks and beautiful glass bead necklaces showcase the tribal people's skill in metalwork.
• Irula Snake Art: A unique art form created by Irula snake catchers in Tamil Nadu, using naturally molted snake skins, reflecting their close connection with nature.
• Kurava Wood Carving: Elaborate wood carvings on furniture and decorative items by the Kurava tribe of Kerala, highlighting their craftsmanship.

Preserving Tribal Culture

The intangible cultural heritage of Indian tribes represents a traditional knowledge system that holds invaluable positive and productive elements for humanity. However, these elements face significant threats to their existence due to societal modernization and rapid lifestyle changes across the country. Therefore, concerted efforts are necessary to safeguard the traditional culture for successive generations of the tribal population.

Some notable government initiatives in the preservation of tribal cultural heritage include:

• 'Sankalp Se Siddhi' Initiative: Launched in 2021 by the Ministry of Tribal Affairs, Government of India, and implemented by the Tribal Cooperative Marketing Development Federation of India (TRIFED). This initiative, also known as 'Mission Van Dhan,' aims to establish sustainable livelihoods for India's tribal population through the creation of Van Dhan Vikas.