UPSC Daily Current Affairs: 30th November 2024 | Current Affairs & Hindu Analysis: Daily, Weekly & Monthly PDF Download

GS2/Polity

Pending Supreme Court Case on the Places of Worship Act, 1991

Source: The Hindu

Why in News?

The Supreme Court is currently reviewing an important case regarding the Places of Worship (Special Provisions) Act, 1991. This law is designed to maintain the religious character of places of worship as they existed on August 15, 1947. Despite the significance of this case, progress has been slow, with the Union government remaining non-committal on the issue.

The Places of Worship (Special Provisions) Act, 1991:

• Background:
  • The Act was enacted by the P V Narasimha Rao-led Congress government during the peak of the Ram temple movement.
• Key Provision:
  • The Act mandates that the religious nature of all places of worship, except the one in Ayodhya which was under litigation at that time, must remain as they were on August 15, 1947.
• Objective:
  • It prohibits the conversion of any place of worship.
  • It aims to maintain the religious character of places of worship as they existed on August 15, 1947.
• Scope:
  • The Act restricts individuals from filing lawsuits to reclaim religious sites.
• SC Verdict:
  • In the 2019 Ram Janmabhoomi-Babri Masjid case, the Supreme Court emphasized that the Act represents a legislative intervention that preserves non-retrogression, an essential feature of India's secular values.

Legal Challenges w.r.t. the Places of Worship Act, 1991:

• Petitioners’ Argument:
  • Petitioners claim that the Act unjustly denies Hindus, Jains, Buddhists, and Sikhs their right to reclaim places of worship that were allegedly seized during historical invasions.
  • They view the Act as a barrier to addressing past injustices.
• Counter Argument:
  • The All-India Muslim Personal Law Board defends the Act, arguing that it upholds the principles of secularism and fraternity, which are fundamental to the Constitution's Basic Structure.
  • Muslim representatives assert that the Act plays a critical role in maintaining national harmony by preventing the historical misuse of claims to oppress contemporary and future generations.
• SC Proceedings:
  • The Supreme Court has yet to reach a resolution in this four-year-old case. The last significant order, issued on November 30, 2023, highlighted the Union government's failure to respond to the matter.
• Contrasting Actions by the Courts:
  • Ajmer Sharif Dargah Case: Rajasthan courts have issued notices to the Minority Affairs Ministry and the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) concerning claims that the dargah was constructed over a Shiva temple.
  • Shahi Jama Masjid, Sambhal: A local court in Uttar Pradesh has ordered a survey following claims that it was built by Emperor Babar on a demolished temple site.
  • Gyanvapi Mosque: The Supreme Court has allowed a scientific survey to continue at the mosque site, excluding excavation, after claims of a "shivling" discovery.
  • Shahi Eidgah Case: The apex court has stayed a High Court order that permitted a survey at the Eidgah mosque in Mathura.

Concerns Raised by Muslim Representatives and Judicial Response:

• Survey Modus Operandi:
  • Experts have described ongoing surveys as part of a systematic approach to challenge the integrity of religious sites, addressing one claim at a time.
• Calls for Action:
  • Muslim parties, including those managing the Gyanvapi mosque, have called on the Supreme Court to enforce the Act and prevent frivolous claims.
• Judicial Response:
  • Former Chief Justice D.Y. Chandrachud emphasized the need to balance faith and legality, noting that what may seem trivial to some could be a genuine expression of faith for others.

Conclusion:

• The ongoing case related to the Places of Worship Act highlights the tension between historical grievances and the constitutional values of secularism and unity.
• As the Supreme Court continues its deliberations, differing judicial actions at local levels are intensifying discussions surrounding religious and cultural identity in India.
• Finding a resolution to this matter is essential for maintaining communal harmony and upholding the rule of law.

GS3/Environment

Arittapatti Biodiversity Heritage Site

Source:The Hindu

Why in the News?

The Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu has urged the Prime Minister to revoke the tungsten mining rights in Madurai, expressing concerns regarding the Arittapatti biodiversity heritage site.

About

• It is the first Biodiversity Heritage Site (BHS) recognized for its ecological and historical importance.

Details

• Geological Features
  • The site is encircled by a range of seven hillocks known as inselbergs, which serve as a watershed.
  • This watershed supplies water to 72 lakes, 200 natural springs, and 3 check dams.
  • It features the historic Anaikondan tank, which was constructed during the reign of the Pandiyan kings in the 16th century.
• Flora and Fauna
  • The site is home to 250 bird species, including the Laggar Falcon, Shaheen Falcon, and Bonelli’s Eagle.
  • It also hosts various species such as the Indian Pangolin, Slender Loris, and pythons.
• Cultural Significance
  • The area contains megalithic structures, rock-cut temples, Tamil Brahmi inscriptions, and Jain beds, showcasing its rich cultural heritage.

Back2Basics: Biodiversity Heritage Site (BHS)

• A Biodiversity Heritage Site is a defined, ecologically sensitive area recognized for its rich biological diversity.
• Key Features
  • High Biodiversity: BHS are home to various wild and domesticated species, including rare, threatened, and keystone species.
  • Ecological Fragility: These areas are considered ecologically vulnerable, playing a crucial role in maintaining local ecosystems.
  • Community Involvement: Local communities manage BHS to help conserve biodiversity.
  • BHS are designated under Section 37(1) of the Biological Diversity Act, 2002, with notifications issued by the State Government in collaboration with local bodies.
  • The Nallur Tamarind Grove in Bengaluru, Karnataka, was the first BHS declared in India in 2007.

Protection Measures

• Establishing a BHS does not always restrict activities but aims to conserve and sustainably manage the biodiversity within these areas.

PYQ:

In the context of India's biodiversity, the Ceylon frogmouth, Coppersmith barbet, Gray-chinned minivet, and White-throated redstart are classified as:
(a) Birds
(b) Primates
(c) Reptiles
(d) Amphibians

GS3/Environment

New study: more than 1.5 million die each year from wild/bush fire pollution

Source:Indian Express

Why in news?

A recent study published in The Lancet has highlighted a grave issue regarding pollution from landscape fires. Specifically, it indicates that agricultural burning in northern India during the winter months has resulted in over 120,000 deaths annually between 2000 and 2019 due to air pollution caused by these fires. This alarming statistic underscores the severe health risks associated with wildfire pollution.

What is Wildfire and Its Types?

• Wildfires refer to uncontrolled fires occurring in natural landscapes, including forests, grasslands, and savannas. They can arise from natural events like lightning or human activities such as land clearing and agricultural burning.

Types of Wildfires

• Forest Fires: These fires occur in wooded regions, spreading rapidly due to dry weather and strong winds.
• Grassland Fires: Also known as prairie fires, these ignite in grasslands and can promote ecosystem regeneration but can also be devastating when uncontrolled.
• Vegetation Fires: These fires affect shrublands and other vegetation types, often worsened by drought conditions.
• Agricultural Burning: A prevalent practice in many areas, especially in northern India during winter, where farmers burn crop stubble to prepare fields for new planting, significantly contributing to air pollution.

What are the Global and Local Impacts of Landscape Fire Pollution?

• Global Impact:
  • Death Toll: The study estimates that landscape fires cause over 1.53 million deaths annually worldwide due to air pollution, primarily affecting low- and middle-income countries.
  • Health Risks: Approximately 450,000 deaths each year are linked to cardiovascular diseases, while 220,000 are associated with respiratory diseases due to fine particulate matter (PM2.5) emitted by these fires.
  • Geographical Disparities: Countries such as China, the Democratic Republic of Congo, India, Indonesia, and Nigeria exhibit the highest mortality rates from fire-related air pollution.
• Local Impact (India):
  • Annual Deaths: In India, landscape fires have contributed to approximately 2.55 million deaths from respiratory and cardiovascular issues from 2000 to 2019, averaging over 120,000 deaths each year.
  • Seasonal Pollution: Northern India faces severe air quality problems during winter (October to December) due to agricultural burning, compounded by cooler temperatures that trap pollutants near the ground.
  • Socio-Economic Factors: The study reveals that deaths from wildfires are four times more prevalent in low-income countries compared to high-income nations, indicating that poorer regions are at greater risk from fire-related air pollution.

What are the steps taken by the Government to the wildfire?

• Forest Protection Division: This division, led by the DIG of Forests, oversees forest fire management at the national level.
• Community Involvement: The government promotes active participation of local communities in forest fire management through initiatives like Joint Forest Management Committees (JFMCs) and Eco-Development Committees (EDCs).
• National Action Plan for Forest Fires (NAPFF): Introduced in 2018, this plan aims to reduce forest fires by enhancing collaboration between local communities and state forest departments.
• Forest Fire Prevention and Management Scheme (FPM): This is a government initiative designed to help states effectively manage and prevent forest fires.

Way forward:

• Strengthen Community-Based Management: Improve capacity building, training, and incentivization for local communities through JFMCs and EDCs to actively prevent and manage wildfires.
• Leverage Technology and Research: Implement advanced monitoring technologies like satellite-based fire detection and encourage research into fire-resistant vegetation to lessen the impact of wildfires and associated air pollution.

GS3/Science and Technology

High Energy Stereoscopic System (HESS) Observatory

Source:Times of India 

Why in news?

Scientists at the HESS observatory in Namibia have discovered the highest energy cosmic rays ever observed, reaching energy levels of up to 40 teraelectronvolts.

About High Energy Stereoscopic System (HESS) Observatory:

• The HESS observatory is an array of Cherenkov telescopes situated in the Khomas Highlands of Namibia.
• It commenced operations in 2003 and has been successfully operating since then.
• The observatory specializes in observing gamma rays, which are the most energetic type of light, particularly in the very high energy range (greater than 100 GeV).
• These gamma rays originate from some of the most violent processes in the universe.
• Positioned in the southern hemisphere, HESS is ideally located to observe gamma-ray sources within our galaxy, the Milky Way.
• Gamma rays cannot penetrate the Earth's atmosphere; therefore, HESS detects them indirectly through their interactions with air molecules.
• In addition to monitoring sources within the Milky Way, HESS has an extensive physics program that includes studying outbursts from distant galaxies and addressing fundamental questions related to dark matter and Lorentz invariance.
• The observatory operates through a collaboration of over 260 scientists from approximately 40 scientific institutions across 13 different countries.

GS1/Indian Society

Koraga Tribe

Source:The Hindu

Why in news?

The Revenue department in Kerala has begun efforts to allocate land titles (patta) to the Koraga tribe, categorized as Scheduled Tribe (ST), in the Kasaragod and Manjeswaram taluks under a program named Operation Smile.

About Koraga Tribe:

• The Koragas are classified as one of the Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTG) residing primarily in the southern regions of India, notably in Kerala and Karnataka.
• Language:Currently, the majority of the Koragas communicate in the Tulu language, although they possess their own distinct language.
• The Koragas are subdivided into various exogamous clans, referred to as 'bali'. There are a total of 17 different balis within the Koraga community.
• Economy:The Koragas primarily engage in agriculture and rely on forest resources, including bamboo, cane, and creepers, which they use for crafting baskets and other items.
• Cultural Practices:They express their culture through songs, folk dances, rituals, and magic, which are performed to honor their deities for abundant harvests and to combat diseases.
• Musical Instruments:The Dholu (drum) and Voote (flute) are significant traditional musical instruments used in their performances.
• Family Structure: The Koraga community follows a matrilineal system, where lineage is traced through females. However, after marriage, couples typically reside in the husband's family home, a practice known as patrilocal residence.
• Property Rights: In the Koraga community, property is distributed equally among sons and daughters, ensuring both genders have rights to inheritances.
• Spiritual Beliefs: The Koragas are known to worship various Bhutas (spirits), and they perform Bhuta Kola, which is a traditional folk dance in Tulu Nadu, dedicated to deities like Panjurli, Kallurti, Korathi, and Guliga.

GS3/Economy

Nutrient Based Subsidy (NBS) scheme

Source:Business Standard

Why in news?

The government has a scheme to regulate the subsidy rates for Phosphatic and Potassic (P&K) fertilizers, based on international prices of raw materials and fluctuations in the global market. Unlike P&K fertilizers, urea is provided to farmers at a statutorily notified Maximum Retail Price (MRP), irrespective of its cost of production.

About the Nutrient Based Subsidy (NBS) Scheme

• Introduced to provide subsidies on Phosphatic (P) and Potassic (K) fertilizers based on nutrient content, excluding Urea.
• Aims to promote balanced fertilization by encouraging the use of multiple fertilizers for optimal plant nutrition.

Structure and Functioning

• Launched in 2010 under the Ministry of Chemicals and Fertilizers.
• Implemented by the Department of Fertilizers, Ministry of Chemicals and Fertilizers.
• Scope: Applies to Phosphatic and Potassic fertilizers (excluding Urea).
• Governance: Subsidy rates are decided annually or bi-annually based on market prices of fertilizers and raw materials.

Aims and Objectives

• Promote Balanced Fertilization: Encourages the use of Phosphorus and Potassium to complement Nitrogen and improve soil health.
• Enhance Nutrient Efficiency: Aims to reduce over-reliance on Nitrogen and improve the use of other essential nutrients.
• Support Farmers’ Affordability: Makes fertilizers more affordable and accessible to farmers.

About New Investment Policy (NIP) on Urea

• The NIP for Urea was announced by the Government of India in 2012 to increase domestic urea production capacity and reduce dependence on urea imports.
• The policy aims to revive old urea plants and promote investment in new plants to meet the growing demand for urea.
• The NIP focuses on improving fertilizer availability and ensuring self-sufficiency in urea production.

Urea Pricing after NIP

• The pricing of urea is controlled by the government, and the subsidy mechanism ensures affordable pricing for farmers.
• The government provides subsidies to urea manufacturers to bridge the gap between the cost of production and the retail price, which is kept constant at ₹5,360 per ton (as of 2023) for farmers.

GS3/Economy

Authorised Economic Operator (AEO) Programme

Source:PIB

Why in news?

The Central Board of Indirect Taxes and Customs (CBIC) conducted a two-day global India Authorised Economic Operator (AEO) programme in collaboration with the World Bank on November 28th and 29th, 2024, in New Delhi.

About Authorised Economic Operator (AEO) Programme:

• The AEO programme operates under the World Customs Organization (WCO) SAFE Framework of Standards, aimed at securing and facilitating global trade.
• Its primary objective is to improve the security of international supply chains and ease the movement of legitimate goods.
• Businesses involved in international trade can achieve AEO status, indicating their compliance with established supply chain security standards, which grants them specific benefits.
• An AEO is defined as a business entity engaged in the international transportation of goods, necessitating adherence to national customs regulations.
• This approval is conducted by or on behalf of the national administration in alignment with WCO guidelines.
• In June 2005, the WCO adopted the SAFE Framework of Standards to enhance supply chain security globally.
• The AEO status is one of the three foundational pillars of the SAFE Framework of Standards.
• AEO status fosters a stronger partnership between customs authorities and the trade sector.
• The WCO SAFE Framework forms the foundation for India’s AEO programme.

What is the India AEO programme?

• This programme was introduced in India by the CBIC in 2011.
• It is a voluntary scheme managed by the CBIC.
• The programme aims to provide benefits such as streamlined customs procedures and expedited clearance for businesses that demonstrate high levels of security in their operations.
• Entities with AEO status are recognized as trustworthy trading partners and secure traders.
• This classification allows customs to allocate resources more effectively by focusing on businesses that are less compliant or pose higher risks.

GS1/Geography

Key Facts about Niger River

Source:BBC

Why in News?

In a tragic incident, at least 27 people died while over 100, including women, were missing after a boat capsized along the Niger River in central Nigeria.

About Niger River:

• The Niger River is the main river in western Africa.
• At 2,600 miles (4,200 km) long, it ranks as the third longest river in Africa, following the Nile and the Congo.
• It is the largest and longest river in West Africa, often referred to as the "Boomerang River" because of its winding shape.

Course

• The Niger River originates in Guinea, approximately 150 miles (240 kilometers) from the Atlantic Ocean.
• After its source, the river flows into the Sahara Desert, making a significant right turn near the city of Timbuktu in Mali.
• It then continues southeast until it empties into the Gulf of Guinea.

Countries Traversed

• The river flows through ten African nations: Niger, Guinea, Côte d'Ivoire, Mali, Burkina Faso, Algeria, Benin, Chad, Cameroon, and Nigeria.

Niger River Basin

• The Niger River Basin encompasses 7.5 percent of the African continent.
• The primary tributary of the Niger River is the Benue River.

GS2/Governance

Indians Need to Share Contraceptive Responsibility

Source:The Hindu

Why in news?

India has a longstanding commitment to family planning, initiated in 1952 with the goal of enhancing maternal and child health while controlling population growth. Over time, the program has adapted; however, a significant issue persists—an evident gender gap in the adoption of permanent contraceptive methods. This gap highlights systemic barriers to gender equality, particularly concerning Sustainable Development Goal 5, which aims to empower all women and girls by 2030.

The Decline of Male Sterilisation

• In the late 1960s, vasectomies accounted for over 80% of sterilisation procedures in India.
• Recent policy shifts, societal attitudes, and misconceptions have contributed to a sharp decline in male sterilisation rates.
• Data from the National Family Health Survey (NFHS) indicates a consistent decrease in male sterilisation, with NFHS-4 (2015-16) and NFHS-5 showing no improvement.
• This decline contradicts the National Health Policy of 2017, which aimed to raise male sterilisation rates to 30%.

Reasons Behind Disparity between Male and Female Sterilisation Rates in India

Societal Expectations and Responsibility

• In many Indian communities, family planning is viewed primarily as a woman's duty.
• This perception is reinforced by cultural norms that designate women as primary caregivers, forcing them to manage reproductive health.
• Consequently, men often evade responsibility, seen as the family breadwinners.
• This entrenched mindset leaves women to bear the physical and emotional consequences of sterilisation.

Myths and Misconceptions About Vasectomies

• Widespread myths contribute significantly to the low acceptance of vasectomies.
• Many men fear that the procedure will diminish their masculinity or sexual performance, despite contrary medical evidence.
• Such fears are exacerbated by misinformation that portrays vasectomy as a means of emasculation.
• This lack of accurate information discourages men from considering vasectomies, even though they are generally safer than female sterilisation.

Economic and Practical Barriers

• Economic factors also deter men from opting for vasectomies.
• In many families, male income is crucial; thus, the idea of taking time off work is daunting for daily wage earners.
• Although the government offers cash incentives for missing work, awareness of these initiatives is low.
• Women in a 2024 field study in Chhatrapati Sambhaji Nagar, Maharashtra, expressed that vasectomies could impose financial strain on their families.

Patriarchal Resistance and Female Reluctance

• Resistance to male sterilisation is not limited to men; many women deem vasectomies as unnecessary or inappropriate for their husbands.
• In patriarchal settings, women often internalise norms that assign reproductive duties solely to them.
• Some women in rural areas believe that suggesting a vasectomy could be disrespectful or lead to marital strife.
• This dynamic further entrenches gender inequalities and perpetuates the burden on women in family planning.

Lack of Skilled Healthcare Providers and Awareness

• In rural regions, limited access to trained healthcare professionals exacerbates the issue.
• Even when men express willingness to undergo vasectomies, the shortage of skilled practitioners poses a significant hurdle.
• Community health workers, often the main source of medical information in these areas, are frequently uninformed about the benefits of modern vasectomy techniques.

Implications for Gender Equality

• The gender disparity in sterilisation undermines broader gender equality and women's empowerment efforts.
• When women disproportionately shoulder the responsibility for sterilisation, they face heightened health risks and disruptions to their lives and livelihoods.
• Moreover, the narrative that places the burden on women reinforces harmful gender stereotypes, limiting shared responsibilities within families.
• Addressing these disparities demands increased awareness of the safety and simplicity of vasectomies, alongside a cultural shift in perceptions of reproductive responsibilities.
• Until men are encouraged to participate actively in family planning, achieving gender equality in India will remain an ongoing challenge.

Strategies for Promoting Vasectomy Adoption

Early Education, Awareness, Social and Behavioural Change Initiatives

• Education on shared family planning responsibilities should start early, ideally in schools.
• Introducing concepts of gender equality and reproductive health through peer discussions can challenge stereotypes and destigmatise vasectomies.
• Consistent efforts to dispel myths surrounding vasectomies are essential.
• Campaigns should highlight the safety and simplicity of vasectomies compared to tubectomies.

Enhanced Incentives and Learning from International Successes

• Conditional cash incentives can significantly boost male participation in vasectomies.
• A 2019 study in Maharashtra showed that financial incentives successfully encouraged more men in rural tribal regions to choose vasectomies.
• The 2022 initiative in Madhya Pradesh to increase these incentives by 50% indicates a promising policy direction.
• Countries like South Korea, Bhutan, and Brazil provide valuable insights; South Korea's high vasectomy rates are linked to progressive gender norms, while Bhutan's government-run camps and Brazil's media campaigns effectively increased male sterilisation rates.

Strengthening Health Systems

• The Indian government must enhance its health infrastructure to align with policy objectives.
• This includes training more healthcare providers to perform vasectomies and promoting advanced techniques like no-scalpel vasectomies.
• Investments in awareness and accessibility are crucial for creating an environment where male sterilisation is seen as a feasible option.

Conclusion

• The heavy reliance on women for sterilisation reflects deep-rooted gender inequalities in India's family planning initiatives.
• Closing this gap requires more than just policy declarations; it demands actionable reforms that integrate education, incentives, and systemic changes.
• By normalising vasectomies and addressing societal misconceptions, India can foster shared responsibility in family planning, paving the way for greater gender equality and improved reproductive health outcomes.

GS2/International Relations

UN Peacebuilding Commission

Source:The Hindu

Why in news?

Recently, India has been re-elected to the U.N. Peacebuilding Commission (PBC) for the term 2025–2026.

About UN Peacebuilding Commission:

• The UN Peacebuilding Commission was established on December 20, 2005, through resolutions from both the United Nations General Assembly and the UN Security Council.
• It serves as an intergovernmental advisory body dedicated to supporting peace initiatives in countries affected by conflict, enhancing the international community's capacity in the broader peace agenda.
• The Commission comprises 31 Member States, elected from the General Assembly, the Security Council, and the Economic and Social Council.
• Members also include top financial contributors and major troop-contributing countries to the United Nations system.

Mandates of the Commission:

• To unite all relevant stakeholders to gather resources and to suggest integrated strategies for post-conflict peacebuilding and recovery.
• To emphasize reconstruction and institutional development essential for recovery from conflicts, while supporting the creation of integrated strategies to establish a foundation for sustainable development.
• To offer recommendations and information aimed at enhancing the coordination among all relevant actors, both within and outside the UN.
• To develop best practices, ensuring predictable financing for early recovery activities and extending the international community's focus on post-conflict recovery.
• The Commission promotes a cohesive, strategic, and integrated approach to peacebuilding efforts.

India's Contribution to Peacekeeping:

• India is one of the largest contributors of uniformed personnel to UN Peacekeeping missions.
• Currently, India deploys around 6,000 military and police personnel across various UN operations, including locations such as:
  • Abyei
  • Central African Republic
  • Cyprus
  • Democratic Republic of the Congo
  • Lebanon
  • Middle East
  • Somalia
  • South Sudan
  • Western Sahara

GS3/Environment

What is Silica?

Source: Business Wire

Why in News?

The National Green Tribunal (NGT) on Friday recently directed the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) to prepare detailed pan-India guidelines for silica sand mining and silica washing plants.

About Silica:

• Silica is a chemical compound made up of two of the most prevalent elements in the Earth's crust: silicon and oxygen, represented as SiO2.
• The Earth's crust is composed of 59 percent silica, which is the primary component of more than 95 percent of known rock types.
• Silica can be found in various forms, including both crystalline and non-crystalline (amorphous) types.
• There are three primary crystalline forms of silica:
  • Quartz - the most common form
  • Tridymite
  • Cristobalite
• Other forms include coesite, keatite, and lechatelierite.

Uses:

• Silica sand is widely utilized in construction materials such as portland cement, concrete, and mortar, as well as in sandstone.
• It is essential in the grinding and polishing processes for glass and stone.
• Silica is used in foundry molds and is integral to manufacturing glass, ceramics, silicon carbide, ferrosilicon, and silicones.
• Additionally, silica serves as a refractory material and is also crafted into gemstones.
• Silica gel is commonly employed as a desiccant to absorb moisture.

GS3/Environment

Phlegraean Fields

Source:Economic Times

Why in News?

The Phlegraean Fields, a significant supervolcano near Naples, Italy, are currently showing signs of activity, raising concerns among scientists.

Overview of Phlegraean Fields:

• The Phlegraean Fields, known as 'Campi Flegrei' in Italian, represent an active volcanic region situated close to Naples.
• Unlike the singular Mount Vesuvius, this area consists of multiple volcanic centers within a large sunken area termed a caldera.
• This caldera measures approximately 12-15 km (7.5-9.3 miles) in diameter.
• It was formed around 39,000 years ago following a significant eruption that drained its magma.
• Some experts suggest this eruption may have contributed to the decline of Neanderthal populations.
• Part of the caldera extends beneath the Tyrrhenian Sea, located between the Italian mainland and Sardinia.
• Phlegraean Fields is recognized as Europe’s largest active caldera, surpassing the size of the cone-shaped Vesuvius, which famously devastated the city of Pompeii in AD 79.
• This supervolcano is considerably more active than Vesuvius.

Current Activity:

• Since 1950, the Phlegraean Fields have been in a state of unrest, attributed to a phenomenon known as bradyseism.
• Bradyseism involves the slow movement of the Earth's surface due to the filling or emptying of an underground magma chamber or hydrothermal processes.
• The last eruption occurred in 1538, after a dormancy of approximately 3,000 years, which formed the Monte Nuovo mountain.

Potential Impact:

• Scientists regard the Phlegraean Fields as a supervolcano, capable of eruptions with global repercussions.
• This volcanic region ranks among the world's top eight sources of volcanic carbon dioxide emissions.