UPSC Mains Answer PYQ 2017: History Paper 2 (Section- B) | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

SECTION - B

1. Art and Architecture:
   

   • Temple Building: The Chola dynasty in South India continued to build grand temples, such as the Brihadeeswarar Temple in Thanjavur, showcasing Dravidian architecture at its peak.

   • Example: The Hoysala temples in Karnataka, known for their intricate sculptures and star-shaped plans, exemplify architectural innovation.

2. Literature and Languages:
   

   • Bhakti Movement: The rise of the Bhakti movement saw the composition of devotional poetry in regional languages like Tamil, Kannada, and Hindi.

   • Example: The songs of Alvars and Nayanars in Tamil Nadu and the compositions of Basavanna and Akka Mahadevi in Karnataka enriched regional literatures.

3. Cultural Synthesis:
   

   • Sufi Influence: The spread of Sufism in India during the Delhi Sultanate period led to cultural syncretism between Islamic mysticism and Indian traditions.

   • Example: The Chishti order's impact on literature, music, and social practices in regions under Sultanate rule.

4. Scientific Advancements:
   

   • Mathematics and Astronomy: Scholars like Bhaskaracharya II made significant contributions to mathematics, including the concept of zero and advancements in algebra and trigonometry.

   • Example: The works of Aryabhata II and Brahmagupta continued to influence mathematical thinking.

Conclusion
The 11th to 12th centuries CE stand out as a period of dynamic cultural progression in India, characterized by flourishing artistic endeavors, the growth of regional literatures, and significant scientific achievements. This era witnessed the culmination of architectural marvels under the Cholas and Hoysalas, the emergence of Bhakti poetry in vernacular languages, and the integration of Sufi ideals with Indian cultural practices. These developments not only enriched India's cultural heritage but also laid the groundwork for subsequent socio-religious movements and intellectual advancements in the medieval period.

(b) Evaluate the accounts of foreign travellers about the Vijayanagar Empire.
Ans:
Introduction
Foreign travelers' accounts provide valuable insights into the socio-political, economic, and cultural aspects of the Vijayanagar Empire, one of the most significant medieval Hindu empires in South India. These accounts, penned by visitors such as Ibn Battuta, Nicolo Conti, and Abdur Razzak, offer varied perspectives on Vijayanagar's governance, society, and international interactions.
Evaluation of Foreign Travelers' Accounts

1. Political Organization and Administration:

   • Ibn Battuta: He noted the empire's centralized administration under King Bukka Raya, describing efficient governance and justice systems.

   • Example: Ibn Battuta's observations on the Vijayanagar court's ceremonial splendor and military strength highlight its political prowess.

2. Cultural and Religious Diversity:
   

   • Nicolo Conti: He remarked on the empire's cultural vibrancy, with multiple languages spoken and diverse religious practices observed.

   • Example: Conti's descriptions of temple festivals and Brahminical rituals illustrate the empire's religious tolerance and patronage of arts.

3. Economic Prosperity:
   

   • Abdur Razzak: He highlighted Vijayanagar's wealth derived from trade, particularly in precious stones, textiles, and spices.

   • Example: Razzak's account of the bustling markets and the empire's trade links with Persia and Arabia underscores its economic dynamism.

4. Architectural and Artistic Achievements:
   

   • Foreign Observers: Various travelers marveled at Vijayanagar's monumental architecture, such as the Virupaksha Temple and Hampi's urban planning.

   • Example: Persian traveler Abdur Razzak praised the grandeur of Vijayanagar's palaces and religious buildings, showcasing their architectural splendor.

Conclusion
The accounts of foreign travelers provide a multifaceted view of the Vijayanagar Empire, highlighting its political stability, cultural richness, economic prosperity, and architectural grandeur. These observations not only attest to the empire's regional influence but also underscore its significance as a vibrant center of Hindu civilization in medieval South India. The insights gleaned from these accounts enrich our understanding of Vijayanagar's legacy as a thriving cosmopolitan society that attracted visitors and traders from diverse corners of the medieval world.

(c) Critically examine the 'blood and iron' policy of Balban.
Ans:
Introduction
Balban, a prominent ruler of the Delhi Sultanate in the 13th century, is known for his 'blood and iron' policy, which aimed to consolidate and strengthen his authority through strict measures of centralization and suppression. This policy was marked by both political ruthlessness and military prowess, aimed at maintaining order and asserting sovereignty.
Critical Examination of Balban's 'Blood and Iron' Policy

1. Centralization of Authority:
   

   • Strong Central Rule: Balban centralized power by weakening provincial governors (iqtadars) and asserting direct control over regions.

   • Example: He introduced the system of spy networks (barids) to monitor provincial governors and ensure loyalty to the crown.

2. Suppression of Dissent:
   

   • Harsh Measures: Balban adopted severe measures to suppress rebellions and dissent, including executing rebels and political rivals.

   • Example: He crushed the revolt of Tughril Khan and suppressed the Rajput uprising in the Northwest Frontier region.

3. Military Strategy:
   

   • Expansion and Consolidation: Balban conducted military campaigns to expand the Sultanate's territories and consolidate its borders.

   • Example: His campaigns against the Mongols and rebellious factions aimed to secure the frontiers and assert Delhi's dominance.

4. Administration and Justice:
   

   • Strengthening Administration: Balban emphasized the role of the Sultan as the ultimate authority in administrative matters.

   • Example: He introduced reforms in the judicial system, ensuring swift and decisive punishment for criminals to deter lawlessness.

Conclusion
Balban's 'blood and iron' policy was a double-edged sword, consolidating central authority through ruthless suppression of dissent and military campaigns while instilling fear among rivals and rebellious factions. Although effective in maintaining internal stability and expanding the Sultanate's territorial influence, it also contributed to a climate of fear and insecurity. Balban's approach, characterized by authoritarian rule and military prowess, left a lasting impact on the Delhi Sultanate's governance and set precedents for subsequent rulers in managing political challenges and asserting imperial authority in medieval India.

(d) Do you consider the Rajatarangini of Kalhana to be a reliable source of the political history of Kashmir ? Why ?
Ans:
Introduction
The Rajatarangini, composed by Kalhana in the 12th century CE, is a significant historical text that chronicles the political history of Kashmir. It provides insights into the rulers, dynasties, and socio-political developments of ancient and medieval Kashmir. However, assessing its reliability as a historical source requires careful consideration of its strengths and limitations.
Reliability of the Rajatarangini

1. Historical Accuracy:
   

   • Detailed Chronology: Kalhana meticulously records the reigns of various kings and events, providing a structured timeline of Kashmir's political history.

   • Example: The accounts of early Kashmiri kings like Lalitaditya Muktapida and Avantivarman offer valuable historical data corroborated by archaeological findings.

2. Literary Style and Bias:
   

   • Literary Flourishes: The Rajatarangini contains poetic descriptions and mythical elements alongside historical facts, blending literary style with historical narrative.

   • Example: Kalhana's portrayal of rulers sometimes includes legendary elements, which scholars interpret cautiously for historical accuracy.

3. Political and Cultural Insights:
   

   • Socio-Political Context: The Rajatarangini sheds light on political rivalries, administrative policies, and cultural developments in ancient Kashmir.

   • Example: Descriptions of religious patronage, conflicts with neighboring kingdoms, and societal norms provide insights into Kashmiri civilization.

4. Historiographical Value:
   

   • Contemporary Accounts: Despite some mythological embellishments, the Rajatarangini remains a primary source for understanding Kashmir's political evolution.

   • Example: It is referenced by later historians and inscriptions, reinforcing its role as a foundational text for Kashmiri history.

Conclusion
The Rajatarangini by Kalhana is considered a generally reliable source for the political history of Kashmir due to its detailed chronology, insights into socio-political dynamics, and historical references corroborated by other sources. While it incorporates literary elements and mythological narratives, its core historical content provides valuable data for reconstructing the political landscape of ancient Kashmir. Historians and scholars continue to utilize the Rajatarangini as a key text for understanding the complexities of Kashmiri history, acknowledging its significance despite its occasional literary embellishments.

(e) The religion of the Sikhs was the main force of their unity. Comment.
Ans:
Introduction
The religion of Sikhism played a pivotal role in fostering unity among the Sikhs, providing them with a cohesive identity and a shared sense of purpose. Founded by Guru Nanak in the 15th century, Sikhism evolved into a distinct faith emphasizing equality, social justice, and devotion to a singular God. This religious framework not only guided the spiritual lives of Sikhs but also became a unifying force that transcended regional, linguistic, and caste divisions.
Religion as a Force of Unity among Sikhs

1. Guru-centered Community:
   

   • Guru Granth Sahib: The Guru Granth Sahib, the holy scripture of Sikhism, serves as the eternal Guru and unifying spiritual authority for Sikhs worldwide.

   • Example: The compilation of hymns by Sikh Gurus and saints from diverse backgrounds underscores Sikhism's inclusive ethos.

2. Common Beliefs and Practices:
   

   • Core Tenets: Sikhs adhere to core beliefs such as belief in one God (Ik Onkar), equality of all humans (Sangat and Pangat), and selfless service (Seva).

   • Example: The practice of langar, a community kitchen serving free meals to all visitors, promotes social equality and unity among Sikhs.

3. Historical Context:
   

   • Challenges and Persecutions: Sikhs faced challenges and persecution under Mughal and later British rule, which strengthened their collective identity based on religious principles.

   • Example: The martyrdoms of Sikh Gurus and the sacrifices made by Sikhs during periods of religious persecution underscored their solidarity and resilience.

4. Community Institutions:
   

   • Gurdwaras: Sikh places of worship, known as gurdwaras, serve as community centers promoting religious gatherings, education, and social welfare activities.

   • Example: Institutions like the Akal Takht, the highest seat of authority in Sikhism, represent centralized leadership and collective decision-making among Sikhs.

Conclusion
Sikhism's emphasis on religious unity, moral values, and communal practices has indeed been the cornerstone of Sikh identity and solidarity. The Guru-centered faith, coupled with historical struggles and communal institutions, has fostered a strong sense of unity among Sikhs globally. This religious cohesion continues to shape Sikh community life, influencing their social interactions, charitable endeavors, and political activism. Sikhism's role as a unifying force remains integral to understanding the collective identity and resilience of the Sikh community across diverse cultural and geographical landscapes.

Q6:
(a) To what extent was the Caliphate the source and sanction to the legal authority of the Sultans of Delhi ?
Ans:
Introduction
The relationship between the Caliphate and the Sultans of Delhi was crucial in shaping the legal authority and legitimacy of the Delhi Sultanate during medieval India. As representatives of Sunni Islam, the Sultans sought validation from the Caliph as a means to legitimize their rule and establish religious authority over their dominions.
Influence of the Caliphate on Legal Authority of the Sultans of Delhi

1. Symbolic Authority:
   

   • Caliphal Recognition: Sultans of Delhi often sought formal recognition from the Abbasid or later the Fatimid Caliphs in Cairo to bolster their legitimacy.

   • Example: Sultan Iltutmish of Delhi received recognition from the Abbasid Caliph in Baghdad, enhancing his status as a ruler under Islamic law.

2. Religious Authority:
   

   • Appointment and Confirmation: Caliphal recognition provided religious sanction to the Sultan's authority, affirming their role as defenders of Islam in the Indian subcontinent.

   • Example: Alauddin Khilji's engagement with the Abbasid Caliphate during his reign reflected efforts to secure religious validation for his military campaigns and governance.

3. Legal and Judicial Systems:
   

   • Implementation of Sharia: Sultans invoked the authority of the Caliphate to justify the application of Islamic law (Sharia) in their territories.

   • Example: Feroz Shah Tughlaq codified legal principles derived from Islamic jurisprudence, aligning them with Caliphal decrees and religious edicts.

4. Political Relations:
   

   • Diplomatic Ties: Diplomatic relations with the Caliphate served as a means for the Sultanate to establish alliances and trade networks across the Islamic world.

   • Example: Sultan Muhammad bin Tughlaq's correspondence with the Caliph in Cairo highlighted political and religious diplomacy in expanding Delhi's influence.

Conclusion
The Caliphate provided significant symbolic and religious authority to the Sultans of Delhi, legitimizing their rule and reinforcing their position as guardians of Sunni Islam in South Asia. By seeking recognition and validation from the Caliph, Delhi Sultans strengthened their legal and political authority, incorporating Islamic legal principles and religious legitimacy into their governance. This relationship not only shaped the legal framework of the Delhi Sultanate but also influenced its cultural and diplomatic engagements with the broader Islamic world. The Caliphate's role as a source of religious sanction was pivotal in defining the legitimacy and authority of the Delhi Sultans during their reigns in medieval India.

(b) "Bhakti and Sufi movements served the same social purpose." Discuss.
Ans:
Introduction
The Bhakti and Sufi movements emerged in medieval India as expressions of devotionalism and spiritual quests within Hinduism and Islam, respectively. Despite arising within different religious contexts, both movements shared similar social purposes aimed at spiritual transformation, social inclusivity, and bridging religious divides.
Similar Social Purposes of Bhakti and Sufi Movements

1. Devotional Approach:
   

   • Focus on Personal Experience: Both Bhakti and Sufi movements emphasized a direct and personal relationship with the divine, transcending formal religious rituals.

   • Example: Kabir's mystical poems in Bhakti and Rumi's ecstatic verses in Sufism illustrate their emphasis on divine love and personal devotion.

2. Critique of Religious Orthodoxy:
   

   • Rejection of Ritualism: Bhakti saints and Sufi mystics critiqued ritualistic practices and formalism, advocating for inner spirituality and ethical conduct.

   • Example: Saint Namdev's criticism of caste distinctions in Hindu society and Sufi poet Bulleh Shah's rejection of religious formalities highlight their shared social critique.

3. Emphasis on Equality and Unity:
   

   • Universal Brotherhood: Both movements promoted the idea of universal brotherhood and equality among all human beings, irrespective of caste, creed, or social status.

   • Example: Guru Nanak's teachings of equality (Sangat and Pangat) in Sikhism and Sufi practices of hospitality (Khanqahs) embody this principle.

4. Social Reform and Harmony:
   

   • Promotion of Social Harmony: Bhakti and Sufi saints worked towards social reform, advocating for compassion, tolerance, and communal harmony.

   • Example: Kabir's teachings on unity (Ek Onkar) and Sufi orders fostering interfaith dialogue and tolerance exemplify their efforts towards social cohesion.

Conclusion
Both the Bhakti and Sufi movements played crucial roles in medieval India by promoting spiritual liberation, social inclusivity, and ethical conduct. Despite originating within distinct religious traditions, their shared emphasis on personal devotion, critique of orthodoxy, advocacy for social equality, and efforts towards communal harmony highlight their similar social purposes. These movements continue to inspire spiritual seekers and scholars, illustrating their enduring relevance in fostering interfaith dialogue and promoting universal human values across diverse cultural landscapes.

(c) Delineate non-agricultural production and urban economy in the 13th and 14th centuries C.E.
Ans:
Introduction
During the 13th and 14th centuries CE in India, non-agricultural production and urban economy underwent significant developments, reflecting economic diversification and urban growth under various ruling dynasties.
Non-Agricultural Production

1. Craftsmanship and Industries:
   

   • Artisan Guilds: Guilds of craftsmen, such as weavers, metalworkers, and potters, flourished in urban centers like Delhi, Agra, and Vijayanagara.

   • Example: The production of textiles in medieval India, particularly fine muslin and silk fabrics, was renowned and exported to Southeast Asia and the Middle East.

2. Trade and Commerce:
   

   • Market Centers: Urban hubs like Delhi and Multan served as centers for trade, facilitating the exchange of goods such as spices, textiles, and precious metals.

   • Example: The establishment of marketplaces and trade routes under the Delhi Sultanate expanded commercial activities, benefiting from connections to global trade networks.

Urban Economy

1. Market Integration:
   

   • Market Dynamics: Urban economies thrived on the integration of regional and international trade, facilitated by the presence of bazaars and commercial districts.

   • Example: The growth of port cities like Surat and Calicut enhanced maritime trade with foreign merchants from Arabia, Persia, and China.

2. Financial Systems:
   

   • Banking and Finance: Moneylenders and bankers played crucial roles in urban economies, providing credit and financing for trade and entrepreneurial ventures.

   • Example: The development of hundis (bills of exchange) facilitated long-distance trade and financial transactions across different regions.

Conclusion
The 13th and 14th centuries CE witnessed a flourishing non-agricultural production sector and a vibrant urban economy in India. Craftsmanship, trade networks, and financial systems contributed to economic diversification and urban growth under various ruling dynasties. These developments not only fueled prosperity in urban centers but also stimulated cultural exchanges and technological advancements, laying the foundation for subsequent periods of economic expansion and cultural synthesis in medieval India.

Q7:
(a) Do you agree that the schemes of Muhammad bin Tughluq were correctly conceived, badly executed and disastrously abandoned ? Discuss.
Ans:
Introduction
Muhammad bin Tughluq, the Sultan of Delhi during the 14th century, is known for his ambitious and often controversial administrative schemes aimed at centralization and fiscal reform. His reign is characterized by innovative policies that were conceptualized with grand visions but faced significant challenges in execution, ultimately leading to adverse consequences for the Delhi Sultanate.
Correctly Conceived Schemes

1. Token Currency:
   

   • Intent: Muhammad bin Tughluq introduced token currency to curb hoarding and stimulate the economy.

   • Concept: The idea was to replace gold and silver coins with copper tokens, but it led to economic confusion and loss of confidence among traders.

2. Transfer of Capital:
   

   • Intent: Shifting the capital from Delhi to Daulatabad was aimed at centralizing administration and defending against Mongol invasions.

   • Concept: The move was strategically sound but poorly executed, causing logistical challenges and discontent among bureaucrats and citizens.

Badly Executed Schemes

1. Military Expeditions:

   • Intent: Muhammad bin Tughluq launched ambitious military campaigns to expand the Sultanate's territories.

   • Execution: The expeditions often stretched resources and manpower, resulting in overextension and failure to maintain control over newly conquered regions.

2. Administrative Reforms:
   

   • Intent: Implementing administrative reforms to streamline governance and taxation.

   • Execution: Reforms were inconsistently applied, leading to bureaucratic inefficiencies and discontent among local administrators and subjects.

Disastrously Abandoned Schemes

1. Reversal of Policies:
   

   • Intent: After facing failures, Muhammad bin Tughluq frequently reversed his policies, causing instability and undermining trust in his leadership.

   • Example: The abandonment of the token currency and the capital shift back to Delhi reflected the failure of his initial schemes.

Conclusion
Muhammad bin Tughluq's reign exemplifies a period of bold experimentation in governance marked by innovative yet flawed policies. While his schemes were often conceived with strategic foresight, they suffered from poor execution and hasty abandonment, leading to economic turmoil, administrative chaos, and political instability. The legacy of his rule underscores the challenges of implementing radical reforms without adequate planning and support, highlighting the importance of balanced decision-making in governance. His reign serves as a cautionary tale in history, illustrating the consequences of visionary ideas when not properly implemented or adapted to prevailing circumstances.

(b) Do you think that Akbar's Rajput policy was a conscious attempt to incorporate the Indian ruling elite with the Mughal Imperial System ?
Ans:
Introduction
Akbar, the third Mughal emperor, is renowned for his policy of religious tolerance and administrative reforms, including his approach towards integrating Rajput rulers into the Mughal imperial system. This policy was a strategic effort to consolidate power, ensure stability, and foster unity among diverse regional elites under Mughal rule.
Akbar's Rajput Policy: Integration of Indian Ruling Elite

1. Marriage Alliances:
   

   • Strategic Marriages: Akbar forged matrimonial alliances with Rajput princesses, such as his marriage to Jodha Bai (Mariam-uz-Zamani).

   • Example: These alliances not only strengthened diplomatic ties but also symbolized cultural assimilation and political integration.

2. Administrative Appointments:
   

   • Rajput Nobility: Akbar appointed Rajput nobles to key administrative positions within the Mughal administration.

   • Example: Raja Todar Mal, a trusted Rajput minister, was instrumental in implementing revenue reforms (Dahsala system) across the empire.

3. Military Integration:
   

   • Rajput Warriors: Akbar recruited Rajput warriors into the Mughal army, known as the Mansabdari system, which offered ranks and salaries based on military service.

   • Example: Raja Man Singh of Amber and Raja Bhagwan Das of Amer led Mughal campaigns and contributed to military successes.

4. Cultural Synthesis:
   

   • Religious Tolerance: Akbar promoted a policy of Sulh-e-Kul (universal peace), embracing religious diversity and encouraging dialogue among different faiths.

   • Example: His court hosted discussions (Ibadat Khana) among scholars of various religions, reflecting his inclusive approach.

Conclusion
Akbar's Rajput policy was indeed a conscious and strategic attempt to incorporate the Indian ruling elite into the Mughal imperial system. By forging alliances through marriages, appointing Rajput officials to high offices, integrating Rajput warriors into the military, and promoting cultural synthesis and religious tolerance, Akbar aimed to strengthen the unity and stability of the Mughal Empire. His approach not only facilitated administrative efficiency but also contributed to the cultural richness and diversity of the empire, setting a precedent for subsequent Mughal rulers. Akbar's Rajput policy remains a pivotal aspect of his legacy, illustrating his innovative strategies in governance and diplomacy during the medieval period in India.

(c) "The political disintegration was responsible for the socio-economic decline in India during the 18th century." Comment.
Ans:
Introduction
The 18th century in India witnessed significant political disintegration marked by the decline of the Mughal Empire and the emergence of regional powers. This period was characterized by fragmented political authority and constant warfare among competing states, which had profound socio-economic implications across the subcontinent.
Political Disintegration and Socio-Economic Decline

1. Fragmentation of Authority:
   

   • Dismantling of Mughal Centralization: The weakening of Mughal control led to the rise of independent regional states and princely kingdoms.

   • Example: The emergence of Maratha confederacy, Sikh states, and the Bengal Nawabs challenged Mughal hegemony and contributed to political instability.

2. Economic Consequences:
   

   • Disrupted Trade Routes: Political disintegration disrupted traditional trade routes and commercial networks, impacting economic prosperity.

   • Example: The decline of secure caravan routes under Mughal decline affected trade with Central Asia and beyond, reducing revenue sources.

3. Administrative Decay:
   

   • Corruption and Inefficiency: Regional states struggled with administrative decay, leading to mismanagement of resources and fiscal instability.

   • Example: The misrule and corruption under weak Mughal successors and regional governors exacerbated socio-economic decline.

4. Social Disruptions:
   

   • Impact on Society: Political turmoil led to social disruptions, including increased poverty, displacement, and lawlessness.

   • Example: The instability and invasions by Afghan and Persian forces further disrupted agrarian societies and urban centers.

Conclusion
The political disintegration during the 18th century in India was a primary factor contributing to socio-economic decline. The fragmentation of political authority, disrupted trade routes, administrative decay, and social disruptions undermined stability and prosperity across the subcontinent. The weakening of the Mughal Empire and the rise of regional powers altered the socio-economic landscape, leading to a period of uncertainty and turmoil that shaped subsequent developments in Indian history. The repercussions of this political fragmentation underscore the interdependence of political stability and socio-economic prosperity in historical contexts.

Q8:
(a) "Mughal paintings reflect social harmony in contemporary society." Discuss.
Ans:
Introduction
Mughal paintings during the medieval period in India are celebrated for their artistic excellence and cultural significance. They provide insights into the socio-cultural milieu of the time, depicting scenes of courtly life, religious diversity, and interactions among different social groups. Whether they truly reflect social harmony in contemporary society requires a nuanced examination of their themes, styles, and historical context.
Mughal Paintings: Reflection of Social Harmony

1. Courtly Patronage:
   

   • Royal Commissions: Mughal emperors like Akbar and Jahangir patronized artists, encouraging the portrayal of diversity and integration.

   • Example: Akbarnama and Hamzanama manuscripts depict scenes of Mughal court life, showcasing interactions between people of various backgrounds.

2. Religious Tolerance:
   

   • Representation of Diversity: Mughal paintings often depict religious diversity, with scenes showing Hindu and Muslim courtiers, festivals, and religious rituals.

   • Example: The illustrations in Razmnama and illustrations of Hindu epics like Ramayana and Mahabharata reflect cultural synthesis.

3. Social Integration:
   

   • Depiction of Everyday Life: Paintings show interactions among people from different social strata, reflecting a harmonious coexistence.

   • Example: The portrayal of common folk, artisans, and merchants in Mughal miniatures suggests a cohesive society where diverse communities interacted.

4. Artistic Influence:
   

   • Synthesis of Styles: Mughal artists blended Persian, Indian, and Central Asian artistic traditions, symbolizing cultural fusion and social inclusivity.

   • Example: The development of distinct Mughal painting styles under Jahangir and Shah Jahan reflected a cosmopolitan ethos and artistic innovation.

Conclusion
Mughal paintings provide valuable insights into the socio-cultural fabric of medieval India, showcasing themes of diversity, religious tolerance, and social harmony. While they primarily depict courtly life and royal patronage, these artworks also reflect interactions among diverse social groups, suggesting a society where cultural exchange and integration were valued. However, it's essential to interpret Mughal paintings within their historical context, recognizing that while they idealized certain aspects of society, they may not fully capture the complexities and tensions that existed. Overall, Mughal paintings stand as important historical artifacts that illuminate the cultural richness and pluralistic ethos of their time.

(b) Assess the condition of peasantry during 13th to 17th centuries C.E.
Ans:
Introduction
The condition of the peasantry in India from the 13th to the 17th centuries CE was shaped by various factors including agrarian policies, land tenure systems, and socio-economic conditions prevailing under different ruling dynasties. Understanding their plight requires an examination of their roles, rights, and socio-economic status during this period.
Condition of Peasantry: 13th to 17th Centuries CE

1. Land Tenure Systems:
   

   • Feudal Structures: Peasants often worked on land owned by feudal lords or local rulers, paying rents or taxes in kind or labor.

   • Example: The Zamindari system under the Mughals and later British exacerbated exploitation, as intermediaries levied high taxes on peasants.

2. Taxation and Revenue Policies:
   

   • Heavy Taxation: Peasants faced heavy taxes and levies, which often led to indebtedness and poverty.

   • Example: The imposition of various taxes such as land revenue (Mughal period) and tributes (Vijayanagara Empire) burdened agricultural communities.

3. Social and Legal Status:
   

   • Vulnerability: Peasants had limited legal rights and often faced exploitation by landlords and officials.

   • Example: The lack of legal protection made peasants susceptible to arbitrary evictions and harsh labor conditions.

4. Impact of Wars and Famine:
   

   • Disruptions: Wars and natural disasters like famines disrupted agriculture, causing widespread hardships for the peasantry.

   • Example: The Deccan wars during the Bahmani Sultanate and Vijayanagara Empire periods caused significant displacement and economic turmoil.

Conclusion
The condition of the peasantry from the 13th to the 17th centuries CE was marked by economic exploitation, social vulnerability, and political instability. Land tenure systems, heavy taxation, and inadequate legal protections contributed to their marginalization and impoverishment. Despite being the backbone of agricultural production, peasants faced numerous challenges including feudal exploitation, natural calamities, and socio-political upheavals. Their plight underscores the broader socio-economic disparities and power dynamics prevalent during this period in Indian history. Understanding their historical circumstances is crucial for appreciating the complexities of agrarian societies and the enduring struggles of rural populations in pre-modern India.

(c) How will you view the Maratha policy of expansion ? Delineate.
Ans:
Introduction
The Marathas, emerging as a significant power in western India during the 17th and 18th centuries, pursued a policy of expansion that reshaped the political landscape of the subcontinent. Their approach to territorial expansion was characterized by strategic alliances, military campaigns, and administrative reforms aimed at consolidating power and establishing hegemony.
Maratha Policy of Expansion

1. Military Campaigns:
   

   • Conquest of Territories: The Marathas conducted military expeditions to expand their dominion over regions controlled by Mughal governors and other regional powers.

   • Example: Under Shivaji and his successors, the Marathas conquered key territories such as Pune, Satara, and parts of Gujarat and Malwa.

2. Alliances and Diplomacy:
   

   • Forming Confederacies: The Marathas forged alliances with local chieftains, Rajput rulers, and other regional powers to strengthen their military and political position.

   • Example: The formation of the Maratha Confederacy under Peshwa Baji Rao I, which included various Maratha chiefs and allied rulers like the Rajputs and Sikhs.

3. Administrative Integration:
   

   • Establishment of Subahs: The Marathas established administrative units (subahs) in conquered territories, implementing revenue systems and appointing local administrators.

   • Example: The Peshwas and their administrators implemented the Chauth and Sardeshmukhi taxes on territories they controlled, contributing to their financial strength.

4. Impact on Governance:
   

   • Centralization of Power: The Marathas centralized power under the Peshwa, albeit with significant autonomy given to regional chiefs and allies.

   • Example: The administrative reforms under Peshwa Balaji Vishwanath and Baji Rao I laid the foundation for a cohesive Maratha state.

Conclusion
The Maratha policy of expansion was characterized by military prowess, strategic alliances, and administrative consolidation. Through military campaigns, diplomatic alliances, and administrative reforms, the Marathas expanded their influence across western and central India, challenging Mughal authority and establishing themselves as a formidable regional power. Their approach to governance and integration of diverse territories reflected both pragmatism and ambition, shaping the political dynamics of the Indian subcontinent during the late medieval and early modern periods. The legacy of Maratha expansionism continues to influence historical narratives and regional identities in India today.