UPSC Mains Answer PYQ 2020: PSIR Paper 2 (Section- A) | PSIR Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

SECTION ‘A’

Q.1. Answer the following in about 150 words each         (10 x 5 = 50 Marks)

a). Discuss the subject matter of comparative politics. Outline the limitations of comparative political analysis.

Comparative politics is a subfield of political science that focuses on the systematic comparison of political systems, institutions, and processes across countries. The subject matter of comparative politics includes the study of political ideologies, institutions (such as parliaments, executives, and judiciaries), public policies, voting behavior, and social movements. The goal of comparative political analysis is to identify patterns and trends that can be used to develop theories and generalizations about political phenomena.
However, there are several limitations to comparative political analysis. First, the complexity and diversity of political systems make it difficult to develop universally applicable theories. Second, the lack of reliable and consistent data across countries can hinder the accuracy of comparative analyses. Third, cultural and historical differences between countries may limit the applicability of certain political concepts and theories. Finally, the constantly changing nature of the political landscape means that comparative analyses may quickly become outdated.

b). Analyze the contribution of liberal democratic principles in the democratization of Indian polity.

Liberal democratic principles have played a significant role in the democratization of the Indian polity. The adoption of the Indian Constitution in 1950 laid the foundation for a democratic system based on universal adult suffrage, fundamental rights, and the separation of powers. These principles have been instrumental in promoting political pluralism, social justice, and individual freedoms in India.
Liberal democratic principles have also contributed to the peaceful transfer of power through regular elections, the functioning of vibrant and independent institutions (such as the judiciary, media, and civil society organizations), and the accommodation of diverse ethnic, linguistic, and religious groups within a single political framework. Additionally, the Indian polity has witnessed an expansion of political participation and representation, particularly among marginalized communities, which has further strengthened its democratic credentials.

c). Has the increased participation of the underprivileged in the political process of the developing societies strengthened democracy or created political chaos and conflict? Comment.

The increased participation of the underprivileged in the political process of developing societies has had both positive and negative consequences. On the one hand, it has strengthened democracy by making political systems more inclusive and representative of diverse social groups. This has led to a more equitable distribution of resources, increased political awareness, and enhanced social justice.
On the other hand, the increased participation of the underprivileged has also been associated with political chaos and conflict. This is because the inclusion of marginalized groups can sometimes exacerbate existing social cleavages and lead to political instability. Additionally, the rise of populist leaders and identity-based politics can further contribute to political fragmentation and violence. Thus, the relationship between increased political participation of the underprivileged and the strengthening of democracy is complex and context-specific.

d). Critically examine the impact of the process of globalization from the perspective of the countries of the Global South.

The impact of globalization on the countries of the Global South has been mixed. On the one hand, globalization has facilitated the flow of goods, capital, and ideas, leading to economic growth, technological advancements, and increased international cooperation. Many developing countries have benefited from increased access to global markets, foreign direct investment, and technological transfer.
However, globalization has also exposed the Global South to the risks and vulnerabilities of the global economy, such as financial crises, trade imbalances, and external debt. Moreover, the benefits of globalization have not been evenly distributed, leading to widening income inequality, environmental degradation, and cultural homogenization. Furthermore, globalization has sometimes undermined the sovereignty and policy autonomy of developing countries, as they are often subjected to the interests and demands of powerful global actors.

e). What are the core assumptions of idealism as an approach to study International Relations? Explain its continuing relevance in peace building.

 Idealism is an approach to the study of International Relations that emphasizes the role of moral and ethical principles in shaping international politics. The core assumptions of idealism include the belief in the potential for human progress, the importance of international law and institutions, and the conviction that diplomacy and cooperation can lead to a more peaceful and just global order.
Idealism remains relevant in peace-building efforts, as it provides a framework for envisioning alternative, more peaceful ways of organizing international politics. Idealist principles have informed the creation of international institutions like the United Nations, the promotion of human rights and humanitarian norms, and efforts to address global challenges such as climate change and poverty. While realism and other competing approaches may highlight the limitations of idealism in the face of power politics, the idealist perspective continues to inspire and guide efforts towards a more just and peaceful world order. 

Q.2. Answer the following:
a). Explain the concept of balance of power. What are the various techniques of maintaining balance of power?          (20 Marks)

The concept of balance of power refers to a situation in which the distribution of power among nations is relatively equal, preventing any single nation or group of nations from dominating others. This concept is crucial in international relations and has been a central organizing principle in the political and military affairs of states throughout history.
The idea of balance of power is based on the assumption that an equilibrium in the distribution of power promotes peace and stability by discouraging aggression and expansion by any single state. When power is balanced, states are less likely to engage in conflict, as the potential gains are offset by the risks and costs of fighting a comparably powerful adversary.
There are various techniques of maintaining the balance of power, which include:
1. Alliances: States form alliances with other nations to counterbalance the power of a potential adversary. Alliances can be either formal, such as military pacts, or informal, such as diplomatic support. For example, NATO was formed as a collective defense alliance to counterbalance the power of the Soviet Union during the Cold War.
2. Buffer states: Creating or maintaining a neutral or weak state between two powerful rivals can help maintain the balance of power. The buffer state serves as a barrier, preventing direct confrontation and reducing the likelihood of conflict. For instance, Afghanistan and Mongolia have historically served as buffer states between Russia and British India (now India and Pakistan).
3. Arms control and disarmament: States may agree to limit the development, production, or deployment of certain weapons or military capabilities to maintain the balance of power. This can be achieved through negotiated agreements, such as the Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START) between the United States and Russia.
4. Deterrence: States can maintain the balance of power by developing strong military capabilities or adopting strategies that discourage potential adversaries from attacking. For example, the concept of nuclear deterrence relies on the threat of mutually assured destruction, which makes any nuclear attack too costly for both the attacker and the defender.
5. Diplomacy: Diplomatic efforts, such as negotiations, mediation, and crisis management, can help prevent conflicts and maintain the balance of power. Diplomatic initiatives like the Camp David Accords between Egypt and Israel or the Iran Nuclear Deal can contribute to regional stability.
6. Balance of threat: States may choose to align with or against a particular nation based on the perception of the threat it poses to their security. For example, during the Cold War, smaller countries often aligned with either the US or the Soviet Union based on the perceived threat from the other superpower.
7. Internal balancing: States can maintain the balance of power by strengthening their domestic political, economic, and military capabilities. This may involve investing in defense, technology, education, or economic development to ensure that the state remains competitive and capable of defending its interests.
In conclusion, the balance of power is a crucial concept in international relations that seeks to maintain peace and stability by preventing any single nation or group of nations from dominating others. States employ various techniques, such as alliances, buffer states, arms control, deterrence, diplomacy, balance of threat, and internal balancing, to maintain the balance of power and protect their interests. 

b). Enumerate the challenges in the operation of the principles related to collective security in the UN Charter.          (15 Marks)

1. Vague definition of collective security: The UN Charter does not provide a clear and comprehensive definition of collective security, leading to different interpretations and inconsistencies in its application. This vagueness results in disagreements among member states on the nature and scope of collective security measures.
2. Disparity in power among member states: The existence of five permanent members (P5) of the UN Security Council with veto power leads to a concentration of power and decision-making authority. This can result in the selective application of collective security measures, with smaller and less powerful states feeling marginalized or ignored.
3. Political differences among member states: The UN is composed of 193 member states, each with its own political, economic, and social systems. Divergent ideologies and interests can make it difficult for member states to reach a consensus on collective security measures, as seen in the Cold War era when the US and the Soviet Union frequently blocked each other's proposals.
4. Reluctance to intervene in internal conflicts: The UN Charter emphasizes the principle of non-intervention in the internal affairs of member states, which can limit the ability of the UN to act in situations where collective security is threatened. For example, the 1994 Rwandan genocide and the ongoing conflict in Syria both demonstrate the challenges faced by the UN in intervening in internal conflicts.
5. Financial and logistical constraints: The implementation of collective security measures often requires significant financial resources and logistical support. Many UN member states, especially developing countries, may not have the capacity to contribute to such efforts, which can hinder the effective operation of collective security.
6. Sovereignty concerns: Collective security measures may involve the deployment of international peacekeeping forces, sanctions, or other actions that can impinge on the sovereignty of member states. This can create tensions and resistance from the affected states, as seen in the case of North Korea's nuclear program.
7. Lack of enforcement mechanisms: The UN Charter lacks robust enforcement mechanisms to ensure compliance with collective security measures. This can result in some states taking unilateral actions or forming alliances outside of the UN framework, undermining the principles of collective security.
8. Ineffectiveness in addressing non-state actors: The UN Charter's focus on state actors can make it less effective in addressing threats posed by non-state actors, such as terrorist organizations. The rise of ISIS and other transnational terrorist groups has highlighted the limitations of the UN's collective security framework in dealing with such challenges.
9. The need to balance national interests with collective security: Member states often prioritize their national interests over the collective security of the international community, leading to selective enforcement of collective security measures. For example, the US-led invasion of Iraq in 2003 was not authorized by the UN Security Council and was widely criticized as a violation of the UN Charter.
10. Failure to prevent conflicts: Despite the principles of collective security enshrined in the UN Charter, the UN has not always been successful in preventing or resolving conflicts. The ongoing conflicts in Syria, Yemen, and South Sudan, among others, demonstrate the challenges faced by the UN in effectively implementing collective security measures. 

c). Critically analyze the implications of Sino-American strategic rivalry for the South and South-East Asian region.          (15 Marks)

The Sino-American strategic rivalry between the United States and China has been intensifying in recent years, driven by various factors such as trade disputes, disagreements over territorial claims, and competition for influence in global governance. This rivalry has significant implications for the South and South-East Asian region, as it is situated at the intersection of the interests of these two superpowers.
1. Geopolitical competition: The South and South-East Asian region has become a pivotal arena for the geopolitical competition between China and the United States. China's growing assertiveness in the region, particularly in the South China Sea, has alarmed the United States and its allies. The U.S. has sought to counterbalance China's increasing influence by strengthening its partnerships with regional countries like India, Japan, Australia, and ASEAN members. As a result, the region has become a potential flashpoint for direct or indirect conflicts between the two superpowers.
2. Economic implications: The region is heavily dependent on trade with both China and the United States, making it vulnerable to disruptions in trade relations between the two countries. The ongoing trade war between the U.S. and China has already led to economic uncertainties and realignments in global supply chains. For instance, some countries in the region, like Vietnam, have benefitted from the relocation of manufacturing units from China due to increased tariffs. However, others may suffer due to reduced demand for their exports and overall trade disruptions.
3. Security challenges: The Sino-American strategic rivalry has led to an increase in military presence and activities in the region, raising concerns over potential conflicts and escalation. The U.S. has increased its naval presence in the South China Sea to challenge China's territorial claims, and China has responded by militarizing its artificial islands and increasing its naval patrols. This military buildup has heightened tensions and security risks in the region.
4. Regional diplomacy: The strategic rivalry has impacted the diplomatic landscape in the South and South-East Asian region. Countries in the region are being forced to navigate the complex dynamics between the U.S. and China, balancing their relationships with both powers. For instance, India has been trying to strengthen its ties with the U.S. while maintaining its traditional friendship with China. Similarly, ASEAN countries are attempting to maintain a neutral position in the Sino-American rivalry, but their unity and centrality have been tested by the growing tensions.
5. Impact on regional organizations: The strategic rivalry has implications for regional organizations such as ASEAN, SAARC, and BIMSTEC. These organizations have the potential to play a significant role in promoting regional cooperation and addressing common challenges. However, the rivalry between China and the U.S. has led to a lack of consensus on key issues, undermining the effectiveness of these organizations.
In conclusion, the Sino-American strategic rivalry has significant implications for the South and South-East Asian region, with consequences for regional stability, economic growth, and diplomatic relations. It is essential for countries in the region to carefully navigate this rivalry, balancing their relations with both China and the United States while maintaining regional unity and cooperation. Regional organizations, such as ASEAN, can play a crucial role in promoting dialogue and confidence-building measures among the competing powers, thereby reducing the risks of conflicts and escalation in the region.

Q.3. Answer the following:

a). Discuss the ways to strengthen the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) to enable it to address the challenges faced by the developing countries.          (20 Marks)

The Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) is an organization consisting of 120 member states that aims to promote global peace, security, and development. NAM was founded during the Cold War period, as an alternative to the two major power blocs, the United States and the Soviet Union. Today, the Non-Aligned Movement seeks to address the challenges faced by developing countries, such as poverty, inequality, and underdevelopment. To strengthen the NAM and enable it to effectively address these challenges, the following measures can be taken:
1. Increase cooperation and collaboration: NAM member states should increase cooperation and collaboration among themselves, particularly in the areas of trade, investment, infrastructure, and technology. This will help to foster economic growth, create jobs, and reduce poverty in developing countries. For example, the establishment of the New Development Bank (NDB) by BRICS countries is a step towards fostering regional cooperation for development.
2. Reform the international financial architecture: NAM should advocate for the reform of the international financial architecture, including the Bretton Woods institutions (IMF and World Bank), to make them more democratic, transparent, and accountable. This will ensure that the needs and priorities of developing countries are better reflected in global economic governance.
3. Advocate for an equitable global trading system: NAM should work towards the establishment of a fair and equitable global trading system that benefits all countries, particularly developing ones. This includes pushing for the reform of the World Trade Organization (WTO) to address the concerns of developing countries and ensure that trade rules are not biased in favor of developed nations.
4. Promote South-South cooperation: NAM should continue to promote South-South cooperation as a means of fostering development in the Global South. This includes supporting initiatives such as the India-Africa Forum Summit, the China-Africa Cooperation Forum, and the IBSA Dialogue Forum (India, Brazil, and South Africa). These platforms can help to facilitate knowledge sharing, capacity building, and technology transfer among developing countries.
5. Strengthen the NAM's institutional capacity: To effectively address the challenges faced by developing countries, the NAM needs to strengthen its institutional capacity. This includes establishing a permanent secretariat, enhancing its research and analysis capabilities, and improving its communication and outreach efforts.
6. Engage with other international organizations: NAM should actively engage with other international organizations, such as the United Nations, the G20, and the African Union, to promote the interests of developing countries in global forums. This will help to ensure that the concerns and priorities of the Global South are adequately represented in international decision-making processes.
7. Promote disarmament and non-proliferation: NAM should continue to advocate for disarmament and non-proliferation, particularly in the context of nuclear weapons. This will help to ensure that resources are directed towards development rather than military spending, thereby contributing to global peace and security.
8. Address climate change and environmental degradation: NAM should prioritize the issue of climate change and environmental degradation, as these challenges disproportionately affect developing countries. This includes advocating for greater support from developed countries in terms of finance, technology, and capacity building to help developing countries adapt to and mitigate the impacts of climate change.
By implementing these measures, the Non-Aligned Movement can strengthen its capacity to address the challenges faced by developing countries and contribute to the realization of a more equitable, just, and sustainable global order. 

b). Critically evaluate the role of the United States of America in the World Trade Organization (WTO) dispute settlement mechanism and its implications for the future of the WTO.          (15 Marks)

The United States of America has played a significant role in the World Trade Organization (WTO) and its dispute settlement mechanism since the establishment of the organization in 1995. As a founding member, the U.S. has contributed immensely to the development of global trade rules and their enforcement through the WTO's dispute settlement mechanism. However, in recent years, the U.S. has been involved in several controversies regarding the WTO and its dispute settlement system, raising concerns about the future of the organization and the efficacy of its dispute resolution process.
The role of the United States in the WTO dispute settlement mechanism can be critically evaluated in the following aspects:
1. Active participant: The U.S. has been an active participant in the WTO dispute settlement mechanism, both as a complainant and as a respondent. The country has initiated numerous cases against other WTO members, alleging violations of trade rules and seeking redress for its domestic industries. For example, the U.S. has brought cases against China, the European Union, and other countries over issues such as intellectual property rights, subsidies, and market access. At the same time, the U.S. has also faced several complaints from other countries and has complied with many of the rulings issued by the WTO dispute settlement body.
2. Enforcement of global trade rules: The U.S. has played a crucial role in enforcing global trade rules through the WTO dispute settlement mechanism. By initiating cases against other countries and ensuring compliance with WTO rulings, the U.S. has contributed to maintaining a rules-based international trading system. This has helped in promoting fair competition, transparency, and predictability in global trade.
3. Blocking the appointment of Appellate Body members: In recent years, the U.S. has been blocking the appointment of new judges to the WTO's Appellate Body, a key component of the dispute settlement mechanism. The U.S. contends that the Appellate Body has overstepped its mandate and has made judicial overreach in its rulings. This has led to a crisis in the Appellate Body, as it does not have the minimum number of judges required to function. Consequently, the dispute settlement mechanism has been severely hampered, and the future of the WTO is at stake.
4. Unilateral trade measures: In recent years, the U.S. has taken several unilateral trade measures, such as imposing tariffs on steel and aluminum imports, citing national security concerns. These measures have bypassed the WTO dispute settlement mechanism, undermining the organization's authority and credibility. Furthermore, these actions have raised concerns regarding the U.S.'s commitment to the multilateral trading system and the future of the WTO.
Implications for the future of the WTO:
1. Weakening of the dispute settlement mechanism: The ongoing crisis in the Appellate Body and the U.S.'s unilateral trade actions have weakened the WTO's dispute settlement mechanism. This could lead to a loss of faith in the system, and countries may resort to unilateral trade measures or bilateral agreements, undermining the multilateral trading system.
2. Erosion of the rules-based trading system: As the U.S. takes unilateral trade measures and blocks Appellate Body appointments, the rules-based trading system that the WTO is built upon may be eroded. This could lead to trade disputes being unresolved, increased trade tensions, and a possible escalation of trade wars.
3. Reform and revitalization of the WTO: The current crisis in the WTO presents an opportunity to reform and revitalize the organization. There is a need to address the concerns raised by the U.S. and other countries regarding the functioning of the dispute settlement mechanism and the organization as a whole. This could involve updating the WTO's rules to address contemporary trade issues, strengthening the dispute settlement mechanism, and improving the organization's governance structure.
In conclusion, the United States has played a critical role in the WTO dispute settlement mechanism, contributing to the enforcement of global trade rules and the promotion of a rules-based trading system. However, recent actions by the U.S. have raised concerns about the future of the WTO and its dispute settlement mechanism. To ensure the continued viability of the WTO, it is essential to address these concerns and undertake necessary reforms to strengthen the organization and its dispute resolution process.

c). Explain the significance and importance of the demand raised by the developing countries for a New International Economic Order (NIEO). Are they likely to achieve their objectives of NIEO in foreseeable future?          (15 Marks)

The New International Economic Order (NIEO) is a set of proposals and demands put forward by the developing countries during the 1970s to reform the existing international economic system. The main objectives of the NIEO were to reduce the economic gap between developed and developing countries, promote economic self-reliance, and achieve a more equitable distribution of global resources and wealth. The significance and importance of the NIEO can be understood in the context of the historical and structural inequalities faced by developing countries in the global economic system.
The NIEO was significant for several reasons:
1. Challenging the existing economic order: The NIEO represented a collective demand by the developing countries to challenge the existing international economic system, which was largely dominated by the developed countries. The developing countries argued that the rules and institutions of the global economic system were biased in favor of the developed countries, perpetuating their dominance and the dependence of the developing countries.
2. Promoting economic self-reliance: One of the key objectives of the NIEO was to promote economic self-reliance of developing countries by reducing their dependence on foreign aid, technology, and investment. This was aimed at strengthening their domestic economies and enabling them to pursue independent development strategies.
3. Addressing the issue of resource control: The NIEO demanded a more equitable distribution of global resources, including the right of developing countries to nationalize their natural resources and control their export prices. This was an attempt to counter the exploitative practices of multinational corporations and developed countries in the extraction and pricing of natural resources.
4. Demanding fair trade and financial relations: The NIEO also called for reforms in international trade and financial relations, such as more favorable terms of trade for developing countries, increased access to developed countries' markets, and a restructuring of the international monetary system.
5. Enhancing the role of the United Nations: The NIEO sought to strengthen the role of the United Nations in global economic governance, with the aim of making it more representative and responsive to the needs of developing countries.
Despite the significance and importance of the NIEO, its objectives have not been fully realized in the foreseeable future. This can be attributed to several factors:
1. Resistance from developed countries: The developed countries, particularly the United States and Western European nations, have been reluctant to accept the demands of the NIEO, fearing that it would undermine their economic and political dominance.
2. Lack of unity among developing countries: The developing countries themselves have not been able to maintain a united front in their pursuit of the NIEO, as they are often divided by regional, political, and economic differences.
3. Global economic and political changes: The global economic and political landscape has changed significantly since the 1970s, with the rise of new economic powers like China and India, the collapse of the Soviet Union, and the increasing dominance of neoliberal economic policies.
4. Ineffectiveness of international institutions: International institutions like the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) and the Group of 77, which were supposed to champion the cause of the NIEO, have not been able to bring about the desired changes in the global economic system.
In conclusion, while the demand for a New International Economic Order was significant and important for developing countries, the likelihood of achieving its objectives in the foreseeable future appears to be limited due to the factors mentioned above. However, the continued pursuit of the NIEO's principles by developing countries and their allies in international forums may still bring about incremental reforms in the global economic system that could benefit the developing world. 

Q.4. Answer the following:

a). Discuss the significance and urgency of the UN Security Council reforms. Explain the relevance of the reform proposals made by the UN Secretary General António Guterres for the developing countries.          (20 Marks)

The United Nations Security Council (UNSC) is one of the six principal organs of the United Nations, tasked with maintaining international peace and security. Established in 1945, the Security Council consists of five permanent members (P5) - the United States, Russia, China, France, and the United Kingdom - and ten non-permanent members elected for two-year terms. The P5 members hold veto power, allowing them to block any substantive resolution. This structure has been criticized for being outdated and unrepresentative, as it reflects the geopolitical realities of the post-World War II era rather than the contemporary global landscape.
The significance and urgency of UN Security Council reforms arise from several factors:
1. Changing global power dynamics: The current composition of the UNSC does not accurately represent the contemporary distribution of global power. Emerging powers such as India, Brazil, Germany, and Japan have been pushing for a more inclusive and representative UNSC. Their contributions to global peacekeeping and development, and their increasing economic and diplomatic influence, make their inclusion necessary for a more legitimate and efficient UNSC.
2. Regional representation: The current UNSC structure does not provide adequate representation for regions such as Africa, Latin America, and Southeast Asia. Inclusion of these regions would give a more balanced and equitable representation of the global community, enhancing the legitimacy and effectiveness of the Council's decisions.
3. Veto power: The veto power of the P5 members has been a contentious issue, as it often results in a deadlock in the decision-making process. Critics argue that this undemocratic feature undermines the effectiveness of the UNSC, and reforms should address this issue by either limiting or abolishing the veto power.
4. Efficiency and transparency: The UNSC has been criticized for its lack of transparency and accountability in decision-making. Reforms should aim to improve the working methods of the Council and make it more open, transparent, and accountable to the wider UN membership and the global public.
UN Secretary General António Guterres has made several reform proposals, which hold relevance for developing countries. Some of these proposals include:
1. Expanding the membership of the Security Council: Guterres has called for a more representative and democratic UNSC, which would include more developing countries as permanent and non-permanent members. This would ensure that the interests and concerns of developing countries are better reflected in the Council's decisions.
2. Limiting or abolishing the veto power: Guterres has suggested exploring options to limit the use of the veto power, which would prevent P5 members from using it to protect their own interests at the expense of the broader global community. This would be particularly relevant for developing countries, as it would enable the Council to take more decisive action on issues affecting them, such as conflicts, humanitarian crises, and human rights abuses.
3. Improving the working methods of the UNSC: Guterres has proposed measures to enhance the transparency, efficiency, and accountability of the Council. This would benefit developing countries by ensuring that their voices are heard and taken into account in the decision-making process.
In conclusion, the significance and urgency of UN Security Council reforms lie in addressing the current inequalities and inefficiencies in the Council's structure and functioning. The reform proposals made by UN Secretary General António Guterres hold great relevance for developing countries, as they seek to make the UNSC more inclusive, representative, and effective in addressing the challenges faced by the global community. Examples of the need for UNSC reforms include the ongoing conflicts in Syria, Yemen, and South Sudan, where the use of veto power and lack of representation have hindered the Council's ability to take decisive action to resolve these crises. 

b). Critically analyze the role of ASEAN in the promotion of regional peace and security through economic cooperation and trade.          (15 Marks)

The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) was established in 1967 with the aim of promoting regional peace, security, and economic cooperation among its member states. Over the years, ASEAN has played a crucial role in stabilizing the region and fostering economic growth through the promotion of trade and investment. This critical analysis will focus on the role of ASEAN in promoting regional peace and security through economic cooperation and trade.
One of the key achievements of ASEAN has been the establishment of the ASEAN Free Trade Area (AFTA) in 1992. AFTA was created to promote economic growth among member countries by reducing trade barriers and increasing market access. The agreement has led to a significant reduction in tariff barriers among member states, which has in turn resulted in increased trade and investment flows. For instance, intra-ASEAN trade has increased from 19.3% of the total trade in 1993 to 23.1% in 2018, while the average tariff rate among ASEAN members has been reduced from 12.76% in 1993 to 0.74% in 2018.
Furthermore, ASEAN has also entered into several regional and bilateral trade agreements with countries outside the region, such as the ASEAN-China Free Trade Area (ACFTA), ASEAN-Korea Free Trade Area (AKFTA), ASEAN-Japan Comprehensive Economic Partnership (AJCEP), and the ASEAN-Australia-New Zealand Free Trade Area (AANZFTA). These agreements have helped to further enhance ASEAN's economic integration with the rest of the world and promote regional peace and security through economic interdependence.
In addition to trade, ASEAN has also promoted regional peace and security through various economic cooperation initiatives. For instance, the ASEAN Infrastructure Fund (AIF), established in 2011, aims to finance infrastructure projects in the region, thus promoting economic development and integration. The fund has supported various projects, such as the ASEAN Power Grid and the ASEAN Highway Network, which have improved connectivity and economic cooperation among member states.
ASEAN has also played a pivotal role in addressing non-traditional security threats, such as terrorism, transnational crime, and cybercrime, through economic cooperation. For example, the ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF) has been instrumental in fostering dialogue and cooperation on security issues among its member states and dialogue partners. Additionally, the ASEAN Convention on Counter-Terrorism (ACCT) and the ASEAN Comprehensive Plan of Action on Counter-Terrorism (CPACT) have provided a framework for regional cooperation in combating terrorism and addressing its root causes, such as poverty and underdevelopment.
However, despite these achievements, there are certain challenges and limitations to ASEAN's role in promoting regional peace and security through economic cooperation and trade. One such challenge is the existence of intra-regional disparities among ASEAN member states in terms of economic development, infrastructure, and human resources. This has led to an uneven distribution of benefits from regional economic integration, which could potentially lead to tensions and conflicts among member states.
Moreover, ASEAN's consensus-based decision-making process can sometimes hinder swift and effective action on critical issues, such as the South China Sea dispute. The lack of a strong enforcement mechanism for its agreements and resolutions also limits ASEAN's ability to ensure compliance by its member states, which can undermine regional peace and security.
In conclusion, ASEAN has played a significant role in promoting regional peace and security through economic cooperation and trade. Through initiatives like the ASEAN Free Trade Area and various regional and bilateral trade agreements, ASEAN has fostered economic interdependence among its member states and enhanced its integration with the global economy. Moreover, ASEAN has addressed non-traditional security threats through various economic cooperation initiatives. However, in order to further strengthen its role in promoting regional peace and security, ASEAN needs to address the challenges of intra-regional disparities and improve its decision-making and enforcement mechanisms. 

c). Examine the role of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and other major efforts by the UN to address the global environmental crisis.          (15 Marks)

The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) is a major international treaty that aims to stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere and prevent dangerous human interference with the climate system. It was adopted at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 and entered into force in 1994. The UNFCCC forms the basis for global efforts to address climate change and has been instrumental in shaping international negotiations and action on this critical issue.
The role of the UNFCCC in addressing the global environmental crisis can be examined through the following aspects:
1. Establishing a global framework for climate action: The UNFCCC provides a platform for countries to discuss, negotiate, and collaborate on climate change mitigation and adaptation measures. It has led to the establishment of various mechanisms and institutions, such as the Conference of the Parties (COP), the Kyoto Protocol, and the Paris Agreement, which have been essential in shaping global climate policy.
2. Encouraging national commitments and actions: The UNFCCC requires Parties to submit national reports on their greenhouse gas emissions and the actions they are taking to address climate change. This process encourages countries to take domestic actions to reduce emissions and adapt to the impacts of climate change.
3. Providing financial and technical support: The UNFCCC has led to the establishment of various financial mechanisms, such as the Global Environment Facility (GEF), the Green Climate Fund (GCF), and the Adaptation Fund, which provide financial support to developing countries for climate change mitigation and adaptation projects. The UNFCCC also supports technology transfer and capacity-building initiatives to help countries implement their climate commitments.
4. Fostering international cooperation and dialogue: The UNFCCC plays a crucial role in facilitating international cooperation on climate change by providing a forum for countries to share experiences, best practices, and knowledge on climate change mitigation and adaptation measures.
Apart from the UNFCCC, the United Nations has initiated several other major efforts to address the global environmental crisis, including:
1. The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP): Established in 1972, UNEP is the leading global environmental authority within the United Nations system. It coordinates environmental activities, assists countries in implementing environmentally sustainable policies, and promotes the integration of environmental considerations in development planning.
2. The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development: Adopted in 2015, the 2030 Agenda is a comprehensive plan of action that includes 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) to end poverty, protect the planet, and ensure prosperity for all. Several of these goals, such as SDG 13 (Climate Action), SDG 14 (Life Below Water), and SDG 15 (Life on Land), directly address environmental challenges and climate change.
3. The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD): Adopted in 1992 alongside the UNFCCC, the CBD aims to conserve biological diversity, promote the sustainable use of its components, and ensure the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the utilization of genetic resources.
4. The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD): Established in 1994, the UNCCD is a legally binding international agreement that addresses desertification, land degradation, and drought in affected countries, with a particular focus on Africa.
In conclusion, the UNFCCC plays a critical role in addressing the global environmental crisis by providing a framework for international climate action and facilitating cooperation among countries. Additionally, the United Nations has initiated several other major efforts, such as UNEP, the 2030 Agenda, the CBD, and the UNCCD, which together contribute significantly to tackling global environmental challenges and promoting sustainable development.