UPSC Mains Answer PYQ 2020: Sociology Paper 2 (Section- B) | Sociology Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Q.5. Write short answers, with a sociological perspective, of the following questions in about 150 words each : (10x5=50)

Green chemistry, also known as sustainable chemistry, is the design of chemical products and processes that reduce or eliminate the generation of hazardous substances. It aims to create environmentally friendly products and manufacturing methods, which have the potential to bring about a significant agrarian transformation in India. The benefits of green chemistry for agrarian transformation in India are as follows:
1. Reduction in environmental pollution: Green chemistry promotes the use of eco-friendly chemicals and materials, which helps in reducing environmental pollution caused by the use of harmful chemicals in agriculture. This can lead to improved soil health, water quality, and overall environmental sustainability.
2. Resource efficiency: Green chemistry focuses on resource efficiency by promoting the use of renewable resources, waste reduction, and recycling. This can help in the efficient utilization of resources and reduction in their wastage, which is essential for sustainable agriculture.
3. Enhanced productivity: The use of green chemistry practices can improve the productivity of crops by reducing the negative impact of chemical inputs on soil fertility and plant health. For example, the use of biofertilizers and biopesticides can help in improving soil health and reducing the need for chemical fertilizers and pesticides.
4. Improved farmer income: Green chemistry practices can lead to cost savings for farmers by reducing the need for expensive chemical inputs. Moreover, the adoption of sustainable agricultural practices can help in enhancing the market demand for eco-friendly products, leading to better income for farmers.
5. Climate change mitigation: Green chemistry practices can contribute to climate change mitigation by reducing the emission of greenhouse gases from agricultural activities. For example, the use of biofertilizers can reduce the need for nitrogen-based fertilizers, which are responsible for the emission of nitrous oxide, a potent greenhouse gas.
6. Food safety and public health: The adoption of green chemistry practices in agriculture can help in ensuring food safety by reducing the levels of harmful chemicals in food products. This can lead to improved public health and reduced healthcare costs associated with the consumption of chemically contaminated food.
7. Employment generation: The promotion of green chemistry practices in agriculture can create new employment opportunities in the areas of research, development, and production of eco-friendly chemicals and materials. This can contribute to the overall economic development of rural areas in India.
In conclusion, green chemistry has the potential to bring about a significant agrarian transformation in India by promoting sustainable agricultural practices, improving productivity, ensuring food safety, and enhancing the income of farmers. The adoption of green chemistry practices can also contribute to environmental conservation and climate change mitigation, which are critical for ensuring the long-term sustainability of the agricultural sector in India. 

(b) Analyze the issues related to the citizenship in contemporary India. Give suitable illustrations.    (10 Marks)

Citizenship in contemporary India is a complex and multifaceted issue. The debate around citizenship has been intensified in recent years due to various factors, including the implementation of the National Register of Citizens (NRC), the Citizenship (Amendment) Act, 2019 (CAA), and the issue of illegal immigration. In this context, various issues related to citizenship in contemporary India can be analyzed.
(i) Firstly, the issue of illegal immigration, particularly from Bangladesh, has been a cause of concern for India. This has led to the implementation of the NRC in Assam, aimed at identifying and deporting illegal immigrants. However, the NRC exercise has been criticized for its exclusionary nature, leaving out many genuine Indian citizens, especially from marginalized communities like the Bengali-speaking Muslims and Hindus.
(ii) Secondly, the CAA has added another layer of complexity to the citizenship debate. The Act aims to provide citizenship to persecuted religious minorities from neighboring countries like Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Afghanistan. However, it excludes Muslims from its ambit, leading to widespread protests and criticism of the Act as discriminatory and violative of the secular principles enshrined in the Indian Constitution.
(iii) Thirdly, the issue of statelessness has also emerged as a major challenge in contemporary India. The Rohingya Muslims, who fled Myanmar due to persecution, are one such example. They have been denied citizenship in India and live in extremely vulnerable conditions without access to basic rights and amenities. Moreover, the government's stance on deporting them to Myanmar raises ethical and humanitarian concerns.
(iv) Lastly, the marginalization of certain communities like the Adivasis (indigenous people) and Dalits (untouchables) is another issue related to citizenship in India. These communities often face discrimination and human rights violations, including denial of land rights, access to resources, and adequate representation in the political sphere. This has led to questions about the inclusivity of Indian citizenship and the need for affirmative action to ensure the rights and welfare of these marginalized communities.
In conclusion, contemporary India faces several challenges related to citizenship, ranging from illegal immigration and statelessness to the marginalization of certain communities. Addressing these issues requires a comprehensive and inclusive approach that upholds the secular and democratic principles enshrined in the Indian Constitution. 

(c) Give an account of the consequences and remedies of chronic malnutrition in India.    (10 Marks)

Chronic malnutrition in India has been a major public health concern, affecting a large proportion of the population, particularly among children under the age of five. This problem is primarily attributed to inadequate dietary intake, poor healthcare, lack of sanitation, and widespread poverty.
(i) The consequences of chronic malnutrition are manifold, with both short-term and long-term impacts. In the short term, malnourished children are more susceptible to infections and diseases, leading to high morbidity and mortality rates. Furthermore, malnutrition impairs cognitive development, resulting in poor educational outcomes and reduced future productivity. In the long term, chronic malnutrition contributes to the intergenerational cycle of poverty and underdevelopment, as malnourished children grow up to become adults with limited economic opportunities.
(ii) Several remedies have been implemented by the Indian government to tackle chronic malnutrition. One such initiative is the Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) program, which aims to provide supplementary nutrition, immunization, health check-ups, and referral services to children and pregnant women. Another intervention is the Mid-Day Meal Scheme, which ensures that school-going children receive at least one nutritious meal per day.
(iii) Furthermore, the National Health Mission (NHM) focuses on improving healthcare infrastructure and service delivery, particularly in rural areas. This includes the promotion of breastfeeding, micronutrient supplementation, and deworming programs. Additionally, the Swachh Bharat Abhiyan (Clean India Mission) targets improved sanitation and hygiene, which is crucial for reducing malnutrition.
(iv) Nonetheless, challenges persist in the implementation of these programs, including inadequate funding, lack of coordination among various stakeholders, and weak monitoring and evaluation systems. To effectively address chronic malnutrition in India, a multi-sectoral approach is necessary, involving collaboration between government, civil society, and the private sector. This should include promoting sustainable agricultural practices to ensure food security, improving access to clean drinking water and sanitation, strengthening healthcare systems, and enhancing social protection measures to mitigate the consequences of poverty. Ultimately, eradicating chronic malnutrition in India requires concerted efforts to address the underlying socio-economic determinants that contribute to this public health crisis. 

(d) How does the New Education Policy, 2020 aim to eradicate disparities in the system of education in India?    (10 Marks)

The New Education Policy (NEP) 2020 aims to eradicate disparities in the system of education in India by promoting equity, inclusiveness, and accessibility for all sections of society. It has been designed to address the different dimensions of social, economic, and geographic disparities that exist in the education system. The following are some of the key initiatives and approaches outlined in the policy:
1. Universal Access: The policy aims to achieve universal access to quality education from pre-primary to higher education levels. It focuses on bringing back dropouts into the mainstream education system and providing multiple entry and exit points to ensure continuity in learning.
2. Inclusive Education: The NEP 2020 emphasizes the need to include students from socio-economically disadvantaged groups, such as Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, Other Backward Classes, and minority communities. It proposes setting up special educational zones and providing targeted scholarships to encourage the participation of these groups.
3. Gender Inclusion Fund: The policy proposes a dedicated Gender Inclusion Fund to promote the education of girl students and to ensure their increased participation in the education system.
4. Focus on the education of children with special needs: The NEP 2020 emphasizes the importance of providing education to children with disabilities and ensuring their integration into the mainstream education system. It proposes providing adequate resources, infrastructure, and trained professionals to cater to their specific needs.
5. Multilingual Education: Recognizing the importance of mother tongue in the learning process, the policy recommends that education be provided in the mother tongue or regional language up to at least Grade 5. This will ensure that students from different linguistic backgrounds can access quality education without facing language barriers.
6. Holistic and Multidisciplinary Curriculum: The policy focuses on providing a comprehensive and multidisciplinary curriculum that emphasizes the development of critical thinking, problem-solving, and communication skills. This approach will ensure that students from different social and economic backgrounds can develop the skills necessary for their overall development and employability.
7. Financial Support: The NEP 2020 proposes to increase public investment in education to reach 6% of GDP, which will enable the government to provide adequate resources and infrastructure to ensure quality education for all, irrespective of their social and economic background.
8. Teachers' Training and Professional Development: The policy emphasizes the importance of well-trained and motivated teachers to ensure equitable learning outcomes. It proposes reforms in teacher recruitment, training, and continuous professional development to enhance their competencies.
In conclusion, the New Education Policy 2020 aims to eradicate disparities in the education system in India by promoting equitable access, inclusiveness, and quality education for all. By addressing the various dimensions of social, economic, and geographic disparities, the policy seeks to create an inclusive and diverse education system that caters to the needs of all sections of society. 

(e) What do you understand by democratic federalism? How does it promote decentralization of power in India?    (10 Marks)

Democratic federalism is a system of governance in which power is divided and shared between a central government and various constituent units, such as states or provinces, in a democratic manner. It is a political arrangement that allows for the coexistence and cooperation of diverse groups and interests within a single country, while ensuring that power is not concentrated in the hands of a few, but is instead dispersed among different levels of government.
In India, democratic federalism manifests itself through a constitutional arrangement that distributes powers between the central government and the states. The Indian Constitution clearly demarcates the areas of legislative, administrative, and financial powers between the central and state governments, ensuring that both levels of government can exercise authority independently.
The democratic federalism in India promotes decentralization of power in several ways:
1. Division of powers: The Constitution divides legislative powers into three lists - Union List, State List, and Concurrent List. While the central government has exclusive authority over matters in the Union List, the state governments have jurisdiction over subjects in the State List. Both levels of government can legislate on matters in the Concurrent List.
2. Fiscal federalism: The financial powers are also divided between the central and state governments. The Constitution assigns specific sources of revenue to both levels of government, along with provisions for the devolution of central funds to state governments through the recommendations of the Finance Commission.
3. Local governance: Democratic federalism in India further promotes decentralization of power through the establishment of local self-government institutions, such as Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) and urban local bodies. The 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendments empower these institutions by giving them constitutional status and entrusting them with responsibilities related to local governance and development.
4. Role of judiciary: The Indian judiciary plays a crucial role in maintaining the balance of power between the central and state governments. It acts as the guardian of the Constitution, ensuring that the division of powers is respected and that the federal structure is preserved.
5. Inter-state cooperation: Democratic federalism in India encourages inter-state cooperation through institutions such as the Interstate Council and the National Development Council, which facilitate coordination and collaboration on matters of common interest.
In conclusion, democratic federalism in India ensures the decentralization of power by distributing authority between the central and state governments, as well as promoting local self-governance through PRIs and urban local bodies. This system of governance ensures that power is not concentrated in the hands of a few, but is dispersed among different levels of government, fostering a more inclusive and participatory democracy. 

Q.6. Answer the following:

Development planning in a mixed economy like India faces numerous challenges and issues. A mixed economy is an economic system that combines elements of both market and planned economies, where private and public sectors coexist and compliment each other. India, after gaining independence in 1947, adopted the mixed economy model to achieve rapid economic growth, self-reliance, and social equity. However, the challenges faced by India in development planning are multifaceted and can be discussed under the following broad categories:
1. Economic Growth and Resource Mobilization: One of the primary objectives of development planning in India is to achieve rapid economic growth. However, the country has faced several challenges in this regard, such as inadequate resource mobilization, low savings rate, and inefficient allocation of resources. Additionally, the dependence on foreign aid and investment has led to an imbalance in the economy, and issues like inflation and fiscal deficits have cropped up. Therefore, there is a need for better resource mobilization and efficient allocation of resources to achieve sustainable economic growth.
2. Infrastructure Development: Efficient infrastructure is crucial for the overall development of the country. However, India has been grappling with poor infrastructure facilities such as inadequate power supply, poor connectivity, and insufficient water supply. These issues have hampered the growth of industries and hindered the overall development of the country. The government needs to prioritize infrastructure development to support economic growth and improve the living standards of the population.
3. Regional Disparities: Development planning in India has been marred by regional disparities, with some states growing at a much faster pace than others. This has led to a wide gap in the levels of development and the quality of life across different regions. The challenge lies in adopting a balanced approach to ensure equitable development that benefits all regions and reduces disparities.
4. Poverty and Unemployment: Despite significant economic growth, India continues to grapple with widespread poverty and unemployment. The development planning process must focus on generating employment opportunities and implementing poverty alleviation measures to uplift the living standards of the population. This can be achieved by promoting labor-intensive industries, skill development programs, and social welfare schemes.
5. Social Sector Development: The development planning process in India has often neglected the social sector, including health, education, and social welfare. A healthy and educated population is crucial for achieving long-term economic growth and development. Therefore, there is a need to prioritize investments in the social sector and ensure that the benefits of economic growth reach all sections of society.
6. Environmental Sustainability: Rapid industrialization and urbanization have led to environmental degradation in India. The challenge lies in ensuring sustainable development that balances economic growth with environmental protection. Development planning must focus on promoting clean technologies, reducing greenhouse gas emissions, and conserving natural resources.
7. Governance and Institutional Capacity: Effective governance and strong institutions are crucial for implementing development plans and achieving desired outcomes. However, India has faced issues related to corruption, bureaucratic inefficiencies, and lack of accountability. Strengthening governance, improving transparency, and enhancing institutional capacity are critical for the success of development planning in India.
8. Private Sector Participation: In a mixed economy like India, the private sector plays a significant role in driving economic growth and development. However, the private sector has often faced challenges such as policy uncertainty, regulatory barriers, and lack of access to credit. Encouraging private sector participation and creating a conducive environment for businesses is essential for achieving development goals.
In conclusion, development planning in a mixed economy like India faces numerous challenges, ranging from economic growth, resource mobilization, and infrastructure development to poverty alleviation, social sector development, and environmental sustainability. Addressing these challenges requires a holistic approach, effective governance, and a balanced partnership between the public and private sectors. India must continue to evolve its development planning process to overcome these challenges and achieve its long-term development goals. 

(b) Do you think MSP (Minimum Support Price) Scheme for agriculture can help in rural development? Elaborate your response with suitable examples.    (20 Marks)

Yes, I believe that the Minimum Support Price (MSP) Scheme for agriculture can play a significant role in rural development. MSP is a form of market intervention by the Government of India to safeguard the interests of the farmers and ensure them a minimum price for their produce. By doing so, it seeks to stabilize prices, protect farmers from potential price fluctuations, and encourage higher investment in agriculture.
The MSP Scheme can contribute to rural development in several ways:
1. Income Security: The MSP ensures that farmers receive a minimum price for their produce, irrespective of market fluctuations. This provides a safety net for farmers and can contribute to increased income security in rural areas. For example, during the 2008 global food crisis, Indian farmers were protected from sudden drops in global commodity prices due to the MSP system.
2. Agricultural Diversification: The MSP has been extended to various crops, including pulses, oilseeds, and commercial crops, encouraging farmers to diversify their crop production. Crop diversification can improve soil health, reduce dependence on a single crop, and enhance the overall resilience of agricultural systems. For instance, the Indian government has been promoting the cultivation of pulses and oilseeds through higher MSPs to reduce the country's dependence on imports for these commodities.
3. Encouraging Investment in Agriculture: MSP can act as an incentive for farmers to invest in new technologies, better seeds, and other inputs that can enhance productivity and increase agricultural output. This can contribute to the overall development of the rural economy. For example, the Green Revolution in the 1960s and 1970s was largely driven by the introduction of high-yielding varieties of seeds and the assurance of MSP for farmers' produce.
4. Rural Employment: Agriculture is the primary source of livelihood for a majority of the rural population in India. Ensuring a minimum price for agricultural produce can help to maintain employment and livelihoods in the rural areas. It can also provide an impetus for the growth of agro-based industries, which can generate additional employment opportunities.
5. Food Security: The MSP scheme can contribute to food security by ensuring that farmers have an incentive to produce food grains, even during times of low market prices. This can help maintain a stable supply of food in the country and prevent food shortages.
However, it is crucial to note that while the MSP scheme can help in rural development, it is not a panacea for all the issues faced by the agricultural sector in India. There are several challenges associated with the implementation of MSP, such as:
(i) Inefficient procurement mechanisms and inadequate infrastructure, leading to a lack of access to MSP for many farmers
(ii) The focus on select crops, mainly rice and wheat, leading to an imbalance in the cropping pattern and overexploitation of natural resources
(iii) The need for complementary policies and measures, such as improving agricultural marketing, better credit facilities, and crop insurance, to ensure a more holistic approach to rural development
In conclusion, the MSP scheme can play a significant role in rural development by providing income security to farmers, encouraging agricultural diversification, promoting investment in agriculture, and ensuring food security. However, it is essential to address the challenges associated with its implementation and adopt a more comprehensive approach to promote sustainable rural development in India. 

(c) How can skill development programme induce social change? Illustrate.    (10 Marks)

Skill development programs can induce social change by equipping individuals with the necessary tools and knowledge to improve their lives and contribute positively to society. These programs typically focus on enhancing employability, increasing access to quality education, fostering innovation, and promoting social inclusion. By empowering individuals to participate in the socio-economic development of their communities, these programs can bring about a transformative change in society. Here are some ways in which skill development programs can induce social change, with relevant examples:
1. Economic growth and poverty reduction: Skill development programs can contribute to economic growth by increasing the productivity and employability of individuals. This, in turn, can lead to higher incomes and better living standards. For example, the Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Grameen Kaushalya Yojana (DDU-GKY) in India aims to train and place rural youth in jobs, thereby reducing poverty and improving their socio-economic status.
2. Gender equality and women empowerment: Skill development programs can promote gender equality by providing equal opportunities for education and employment to both men and women. For example, the Women ITI (Industrial Training Institutes) in India specifically targets women and provides them with vocational and technical training, enabling them to join the workforce and contribute to their family income. This not only boosts their self-esteem but also challenges traditional gender roles in society.
3. Social inclusion and reduction of inequalities: Skill development programs often target disadvantaged and marginalized groups, such as people with disabilities, ethnic minorities, and the rural poor. By providing these individuals with access to quality education and training, these programs can help bridge social and economic gaps and promote social inclusion. For example, the National Skill Development Corporation (NSDC) in India has partnered with various organizations to provide skill training to persons with disabilities, enabling them to lead independent lives and contribute to society.
4. Community development and civic participation: Skill development programs can foster a sense of community and civic participation by enabling individuals to contribute to the well-being of their neighborhoods and localities. For example, the National Urban Livelihoods Mission (NULM) in India aims to empower urban poor by providing them with skill development opportunities, enabling them to participate in the development of their cities and towns.
5. Environmental sustainability: Many skill development programs focus on promoting sustainable practices and environmentally-friendly technologies. By training individuals in these areas, these programs can contribute to the overall sustainability of society. For example, the Skill Council for Green Jobs (SCGJ) in India aims to provide training in renewable energy, green construction, and sustainable agriculture, thereby promoting environmental sustainability and creating green jobs.
In conclusion, skill development programs can induce social change by empowering individuals and communities to participate in the socio-economic development of their societies. By providing access to quality education, fostering innovation, promoting social inclusion, and encouraging environmentally sustainable practices, these programs can contribute to the overall betterment of society. 

Q.7. Answer the following:

The growth of urban settlements in India is a complex phenomenon driven by various social, economic, political and environmental factors. The consequences and concerns of this growth are diverse, impacting the lives of millions of people living in urban areas. This answer will elaborate on the causes, consequences and other concerns related to the growth of urban settlements in India.
Causes:
1. Rural-urban migration: One of the primary causes of the growth of urban settlements in India is the large-scale migration of people from rural to urban areas. This migration is driven by factors such as better employment opportunities, higher wages, better living conditions, and access to education, health care and other amenities in cities.
2. Population growth: The rapid growth of India's population has also contributed to the expansion of urban settlements. As the population increases, the demand for housing, infrastructure and other facilities in urban areas also rises, leading to the growth of cities and towns.
3. Industrialization: The process of industrialization has played a significant role in the growth of urban settlements in India. As industries develop, they tend to cluster around urban areas, attracting people in search of employment opportunities.
4. Government policies: The government's efforts to promote urbanization, through policies such as the establishment of industrial corridors, smart cities, and urban development schemes, has also contributed to the growth of urban settlements in India.
Consequences:
1. Housing and infrastructural challenges: The rapid growth of urban settlements has led to a shortage of adequate housing and infrastructure, resulting in the proliferation of slums and informal settlements. For example, Mumbai's Dharavi is one of the largest slums in Asia, housing millions of people in substandard living conditions.
2. Environmental degradation: The growth of urban settlements has resulted in the over-exploitation of natural resources, leading to environmental degradation. Air and water pollution, solid waste management issues and the loss of green cover are some of the major environmental challenges faced by growing urban settlements in India.
3. Social issues: The growth of urban settlements has also given rise to various social issues, such as crime, drug abuse, and social exclusion. The urban poor, in particular, face challenges related to access to education, health care, and other essential services.
4. Economic inequality: The growth of urban settlements has led to widening income disparities, with the urban rich enjoying higher incomes and better living conditions, while the urban poor struggle with poverty and poor living conditions.
5. Urban governance: Rapid urbanization has put immense pressure on urban governance, with local governments struggling to provide essential services and maintain law and order in cities.
Other Concerns:
1. Loss of agricultural land: The growing urban settlements often encroach upon agricultural land, leading to the loss of fertile land for cultivation. This could have long-term implications for India's food security.
2. Cultural homogenization: The growth of urban settlements has led to the erosion of local cultures and traditions, as people from diverse backgrounds converge in cities, leading to a process of cultural homogenization.
3. Health issues: The growth of urban settlements has resulted in increased exposure to pollution and other environmental hazards, leading to a rise in respiratory and other health issues among the urban population.
4. Climate change vulnerability: As urban settlements expand, they become more vulnerable to the impacts of climate change, such as flooding, heatwaves, and extreme weather events.
To address the various challenges and concerns arising from the growth of urban settlements in India, there is a need for sustainable urban planning, inclusive development policies, and efficient governance mechanisms. Adopting a holistic approach to urban development can help ensure that the growth of urban settlements leads to improved living conditions and social and economic development for all. 

(b) Evaluate the nature and scope of anthropogenic influence on Climate in India and also analyze the environmental movements arising out of it.    (20 Marks)

Anthropogenic influence refers to the impact of human activities on the climate and environment. In India, anthropogenic activities have significantly contributed to climate change, leading to various environmental issues and movements. This answer will evaluate the nature and scope of anthropogenic influence on climate in India, followed by an analysis of the environmental movements that have arisen from it.
Nature and Scope of Anthropogenic Influence on Climate in India:
1. Deforestation: Deforestation for agricultural expansion, infrastructure development, and urbanization has led to the depletion of forest cover in India. This has resulted in an increase in greenhouse gas emissions, reduced carbon sequestration capacity, and loss of biodiversity, which contribute to climate change. For example, the forests of the Western Ghats have been severely affected, causing a significant impact on the region's climate.
2. Industrialization: Rapid industrialization in India has increased the consumption of fossil fuels, leading to higher CO₂ emissions. Industries like cement, iron and steel, and power plants are significant contributors to greenhouse gas emissions in India.
3. Urbanization: Growing urban populations and expanding cities have led to increased energy consumption and emissions from transportation, waste management, and construction activities. For example, Delhi, the capital of India, is known for its poor air quality, mainly due to vehicular pollution and construction activities.
4. Agricultural practices: The use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides, as well as the practice of stubble burning, has led to higher emissions of greenhouse gases like methane and nitrous oxide. Additionally, water-intensive agricultural practices have contributed to water scarcity and increased vulnerability to climate change.
5. Land-use changes: Conversion of wetlands and grasslands to agricultural land or urban areas has led to the loss of natural ecosystems that help in carbon sequestration and mitigating the impacts of climate change.
Environmental Movements in India:
Several environmental movements have emerged in India as a response to the anthropogenic influence on climate and the resulting environmental issues.
1. Chipko Movement: Started in the 1970s in the state of Uttarakhand, the Chipko movement aimed to protect forests from deforestation by hugging trees and preventing their felling. This movement highlighted the importance of forests in providing ecological services and maintaining the local climate.
2. Narmada Bachao Andolan: This movement emerged in response to the construction of large dams on the Narmada River, which threatened to displace thousands of people and submerge vast areas of forests and agricultural lands. The movement brought attention to the environmental costs of large-scale development projects and their impacts on the local climate.
3. Silent Valley Movement: In the 1980s, the Silent Valley movement in Kerala aimed to protect the tropical rainforests of the Western Ghats from a proposed hydroelectric project. This movement highlighted the role of forests in maintaining the regional climate and preserving biodiversity.
4. Save the Western Ghats Movement: This movement, initiated in the 1980s, aimed to conserve the biodiversity-rich Western Ghats and their ecological services, including their role in maintaining the regional climate.
5. Coastal movements: Various coastal movements, such as the Fishermen's movement in Kerala and the Save Olive Ridley Turtles movement in Odisha, have emerged to protect coastal ecosystems that are vulnerable to the impacts of climate change.
In conclusion, anthropogenic influence on climate in India has been significant, leading to various environmental issues. The environmental movements in India have attempted to address these challenges and create awareness about the importance of preserving ecosystems and adopting sustainable practices to mitigate the impacts of climate change. 

(c) Are the contemporary farmers' movements in India changing their course? Discuss.    (10 Marks)

The contemporary farmers' movements in India are indeed changing their course, adapting to the new socio-economic and political realities of the country. These movements have evolved from being primarily focused on agrarian issues to being more comprehensive in their demands and strategies. The reasons for this change include the impact of liberalization and globalization, the changing nature of the Indian state, and the emergence of new forms of mobilization and alliances.
(i) First, the impact of liberalization and globalization has changed the nature of the agricultural sector in India. The introduction of market-oriented reforms, such as the dismantling of the regulated market system and the withdrawal of subsidies, has exposed farmers to price fluctuations and increased the risk associated with agriculture. This has led to the emergence of new issues, such as the demand for remunerative prices, crop insurance, and debt relief, which have become central to the contemporary farmers' movements.
For example, the All India Kisan Sabha (AIKS), which has historically been one of the most prominent farmers' organizations in the country, has been at the forefront of the struggle against the liberalization of the agricultural sector. It has organized several protests and campaigns demanding better prices for agricultural produce and opposing the entry of multinational corporations into the sector.
(ii) Second, the changing nature of the Indian state has also influenced the course of farmers' movements. With the decline of the Congress party's dominance and the rise of regional parties and coalition politics, farmers' organizations have had to adapt their strategies to the new political landscape. They have started forming alliances with regional and caste-based parties to push their demands, which has led to a diversification of their agendas and an increased emphasis on identity politics.
For instance, the Bharatiya Kisan Union (BKU), a prominent farmers' organization in Uttar Pradesh, has formed alliances with regional parties such as the Samajwadi Party and the Bahujan Samaj Party to fight for farmers' issues. Similarly, the Patidar agitation in Gujarat led by the Patidar Anamat Andolan Samiti (PAAS) was primarily about reservation for the Patidar community but also highlighted the agrarian crisis in the state.
(iii) Third, the emergence of new forms of mobilization and alliances has shaped the contemporary farmers' movements. With the widespread use of social media and other communication technologies, farmers' organizations have been able to mobilize large numbers of people quickly and effectively. This has allowed them to put pressure on the government and bring attention to their demands.
For example, the recent protests against the three farm laws passed by the Indian government in September 2020 have seen an unprecedented mobilization of farmers across the country. The protests have been coordinated by various farmers' organizations, such as the AIKS, BKU, and Rashtriya Kisan Mahasangh, and have brought together farmers from different states and communities
(iv) Moreover, these contemporary movements have also seen an increased participation of women, Dalits, and other marginalized sections of society. This has broadened the scope of the movements and made them more inclusive.
In conclusion, the contemporary farmers' movements in India have indeed changed their course, reflecting the impact of liberalization, globalization, and the changing political landscape of the country. They have become more comprehensive in their demands, more strategic in their alliances, and more inclusive in their mobilization. These transformations are likely to shape the future trajectory of farmers' movements in India and their ability to influence policy and politics. 

Q.8. Answer the following:

Colonial administrators, during their rule in India, significantly contributed to the shaping of Indian society and its traditions. They attempted to understand and govern India by categorizing and defining its various social and cultural aspects. This process led to the construction and reinforcement of certain traditional aspects, which later came to be seen as markers of "backwardness" in Indian society. This essay will critically analyze the role of colonial administrators in this process with relevant examples.
(i) Firstly, the British colonial administrators, in their efforts to understand the complex and diverse Indian society, relied heavily on Orientalist scholarship. Orientalist scholars viewed Indian society as stagnant and unchanging, characterized by an unyielding adherence to tradition. These scholars often romanticized and essentialized Indian culture, presenting it as timeless and immutable. This approach laid the foundation for the colonial administrators to construct Indian society as one deeply rooted in tradition and resistant to change.
(ii) Secondly, colonial administrators codified and systematized various aspects of Indian society, which inadvertently led to the reification of certain traditions. For example, in the process of creating a legal system, the British imposed a uniform, codified version of the previously flexible and diverse customary laws. This codification ossified certain customs and practices, which were later seen as traditional and backward, such as the caste system, sati, and child marriage. The British also introduced the census, which required Indians to identify themselves based on caste, religion, and occupation, further entrenching these categories in Indian society.
(iii) Thirdly, colonial administrators often adopted a policy of indirect rule, which relied on native elites and institutions to govern the Indian population. This strategy led to the reinforcement of pre-existing hierarchies and power structures, which were often based on traditional norms and customs. For example, the British relied heavily on the zamindar system for revenue collection, which solidified the power of the landed elites and perpetuated feudal relations in rural India. Similarly, the British utilized the support of religious and caste leaders in their governance, further legitimizing their authority and the traditional practices they represented.
(iv) Lastly, colonial education policies also played a significant role in shaping Indian society's traditionalist image. The British introduced western education to India with the primary aim of creating a class of anglicized Indians who would serve as intermediaries between the British and the Indian masses. However, this western education often undermined and devalued indigenous knowledge systems, presenting them as backward and irrelevant. Additionally, the British emphasis on English as the medium of instruction further alienated the majority of the Indian population, who continued to rely on traditional forms of knowledge and learning.
In conclusion, colonial administrators played a crucial role in constructing and reinforcing the image of Indian society as traditional and backward. Through their scholarship, policies, and governance strategies, they inadvertently solidified certain aspects of Indian society that were later seen as markers of backwardness. However, it is essential to recognize that Indian society has always been complex and dynamic, with diverse and evolving traditions. The colonial construction of Indian society as traditional and backward should not overshadow the agency and resilience of the Indian people in shaping their own history and culture. 

(b) What were the salient features of the India's Population Policy (2000)? How far its goals have been achieved?    (20 Marks)

The National Population Policy (NPP) of India was formulated in the year 2000 with the primary objective of addressing the unmet needs for contraception, healthcare infrastructure, and health personnel. The policy aimed to achieve stable population growth by 2045 through various strategies, including reducing infant mortality rate, increasing the literacy rate, and providing accessible and affordable healthcare services. Some of the salient features of the policy are as follows:
1. Imparting free and compulsory school education up to 14 years of age, with a focus on increasing the enrollment of girls in schools.
2. Reducing infant mortality rate to below 30 per 1000 live births by 2010 and further reduction to 28 by 2019.
3. Reducing maternal mortality ratio to below 100 per 100,000 live births by 2010 and further reduction to 70 by 2020.
4. Achieving universal immunization of children against vaccine-preventable diseases by 2010.
5. Promoting delayed marriages for girls, preferably after 20 years of age.
6. Ensuring the availability of contraceptives and other reproductive health services to all eligible couples.
7. Achieving a total fertility rate (TFR) of 2.1 by 2010.
8. Encouraging male involvement in family planning and reproductive health programs.
9. Strengthening the infrastructure and human resources for healthcare delivery, including the establishment of primary health centers in rural areas.
10. Promoting inter-sectoral collaboration and partnerships among various stakeholders, including the private sector and NGOs, to improve healthcare services.
In terms of the achievements of the population policy goals, India has made substantial progress in some areas, while other areas still require improvement. Some of the notable achievements include:
1. The TFR has declined from 3.2 in 2000 to 2.2 in 2019, which is close to the replacement level of 2.1.
2. The infant mortality rate has reduced from 68 per 1,000 live births in 2000 to 32 in 2019.
3. The maternal mortality ratio has also shown a significant decline from 327 per 100,000 live births in 2000 to 113 in 2016-18.
4. The enrolment of girls in schools has improved, with the female literacy rate increasing from 53.7% in 2001 to 70.3% in 2011.
However, there are still some goals that need to be achieved for the successful implementation of the population policy:
1. The target of reducing infant mortality rate to below 30 per 1000 live births and maternal mortality ratio to below 100 per 100,000 live births by 2010 has not been met yet.
2. Additional efforts are required to strengthen the healthcare infrastructure, especially in rural areas, to ensure the accessibility and affordability of healthcare services.
3. There is a need for more focused attention on promoting male involvement in family planning and reproductive health programs.
In conclusion, while India's Population Policy has made significant progress in achieving some of its goals, there is still a long way to go to ensure a stable population growth and improved reproductive health for all citizens. Further efforts are required to strengthen healthcare infrastructure, promote gender equality, and ensure the active participation of all stakeholders in implementing the policy measures effectively. 

(c) Point out the main causes of ‘child labour' in India. How far the State policies have succeeded in its elimination?    (10 Marks)

Child labour is a widespread social issue in India, and it involves children below 14 years of age working in various industries and occupations. The causes of child labour in India can be broadly classified into economic, social, and educational factors.
1. Economic Factors:
(i)  Poverty: The primary cause of child labour in India is poverty. Poor families often rely on their children's income to meet their daily needs, as they are unable to provide for their families themselves.
(ii)  Unemployment: The high rate of unemployment among adults forces children to work to support their families.
(iii)  Lack of access to credit: Poor families often do not have access to credit and are thus forced to send their children to work to meet their financial needs.
2. Social Factors:
(i)  Caste System: The caste system in India perpetuates social inequalities and discrimination, pushing lower caste children into labour.
(ii)  Gender Discrimination: Girls are often pushed into child labour due to the preference for male children's education.
(iii)  Large family size: In families with many children, the older children are often sent to work to support their younger siblings.
3. Educational Factors:
(i)  Lack of access to quality education: Many poor families cannot afford to send their children to school, leading to children working instead.
(ii)  Irrelevant curriculum: The education system's curriculum may not be relevant to the local context or job market, leading to children opting for work instead.
(iii)  High dropout rates: The high dropout rates in schools lead to children entering the workforce at an early age.
State policies for the elimination of child labour in India have focused on legislative measures, rehabilitation and welfare schemes, and increasing access to education. Some of the key policies and their effectiveness are as follows:
1. Legislative Measures: The Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Act, 1986, prohibits the employment of children below 14 years of age in hazardous occupations and industries. The Act has helped in curbing child labour to some extent, but its implementation remains weak due to inadequate monitoring and enforcement mechanisms.
2. National Child Labour Project (NCLP) Scheme: Launched in 1988, the NCLP aims to rehabilitate child labourers by providing non-formal education, vocational training, and supplementary nutrition. The scheme has succeeded in rehabilitating thousands of child labourers, but its impact is limited due to inadequate funding and coverage.
3. Right to Education (RTE) Act, 2009: The RTE Act makes education a fundamental right for children aged 6-14 years and mandates free and compulsory education for them. The Act has significantly increased school enrollment rates, but challenges such as poor infrastructure, teacher absenteeism, and high dropout rates persist.
4. Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) Scheme: This scheme aims to provide health, nutrition, and education services to children below six years of age. The scheme has made some progress in improving children's health and nutrition, but its impact on child labour is limited as it does not directly address the issue.
In conclusion, while state policies in India have attempted to address the issue of child labour, their success has been limited due to factors such as weak implementation, inadequate funding, and the persistence of underlying social and economic factors. To eliminate child labour, a comprehensive and integrated approach is needed, focusing on poverty alleviation, social reform, and improving access to quality education.