UPSC Mains Answer PYQ 2021: PSIR Paper 2 (Section- A) | PSIR Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

SECTION ‘A’

Q.1. Answer the following in about 150 words each         (10 x 5 = 50 Marks)

a) Discuss the political economic approach to the comparative analysis of politics.

The political economic approach to the comparative analysis of politics is a method that combines the study of political processes and institutions with the analysis of economic systems and their impact on political outcomes. This approach is particularly useful for understanding the complex interplay between political and economic factors in shaping policy decisions, governance structures, and overall political stability. 

Some key aspects of the political economic approach include:

1. Understanding the role of economic factors in shaping political systems: The political economic approach emphasizes the importance of economic factors in determining the nature of political systems and institutions. This includes analyzing how different economic systems (capitalism, socialism, mixed economy) influence political processes and outcomes, and how the level of economic development affects the stability and effectiveness of political institutions.

2. Analyzing the impact of political institutions on economic outcomes: The political economic approach also focuses on the role of political institutions in shaping economic outcomes. This includes examining how different political systems (democracy, authoritarianism, totalitarianism) affect economic growth, development, and distribution of resources. It also involves studying the role of political institutions like legislatures, executive branches, and judiciary in shaping economic policies and regulations.

3. Exploring the relationship between politics and economic inequality: The political economic approach is particularly useful for understanding the relationship between politics and economic inequality. It helps in analyzing how political factors like party systems, electoral systems, and interest groups influence the distribution of resources and opportunities in society. It also helps in examining the role of social movements and protests in shaping economic policies to address inequality.

4. Examining the role of international economic factors in domestic politics: The political economic approach also emphasizes the importance of international economic factors in shaping domestic politics. This includes studying the impact of globalization, trade agreements, and international financial institutions on national political systems and policymaking processes.

5. Comparative analysis of political-economic systems: The political economic approach helps in conducting a comparative analysis of political-economic systems across different countries and regions. This allows for a better understanding of the factors that contribute to the success or failure of political institutions and economic policies in different contexts.

In conclusion, the political economic approach to the comparative analysis of politics is a useful tool for understanding the complex interplay between political and economic factors in shaping political systems and outcomes. 

b) “Political parties and pressure groups are sine qua none of democracy." Comment.

The statement "political parties and pressure groups are sine qua non of democracy" implies that these two entities are indispensable for the functioning of a democratic system. In this context, we will discuss the roles of political parties and pressure groups in a democracy, particularly in the context of the Indian political system.
Political Parties:
Political parties play a crucial role in a democracy as they provide a platform for people with similar ideologies to come together and contest elections. They are essential for the following reasons:
1. Representation: Political parties bring various sections of society together and represent their interests in the political arena. In India, for example, parties like the Indian National Congress, Bharatiya Janata Party, and regional parties like the Samajwadi Party and the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam represent different regions, ideologies, and social groups.
2. Policy Formulation: Political parties are responsible for formulating policies and programs, which are then implemented by the government. The manifestos of these parties provide a roadmap for governance and help voters make informed choices during elections.
3. Political Socialization: Parties play a significant role in educating and socializing citizens about their rights, duties, and the functioning of the democratic system. They organize rallies, meetings, and debates, which help in creating political awareness among the masses.
4. Government Formation and Opposition: In a democracy, the party with the highest number of elected representatives forms the government, while the other parties play the role of opposition. This ensures a system of checks and balances, which is crucial for the functioning of a democratic system.
Pressure Groups:
Pressure groups, also known as interest groups or lobbying groups, are organized groups of individuals who seek to influence government policies and decisions without contesting elections. They play a vital role in a democracy as they help in the following ways:
1. Pluralism: Pressure groups promote pluralism by representing the interests of various sections of society, which may not be adequately represented by political parties. They ensure that minority voices are heard, and their interests are protected.
2. Policy Influence: Pressure groups play an essential role in influencing government policies by providing expert advice, research, and information to policymakers. For example, environmental groups like the Centre for Science and Environment (CSE) in India have played a significant role in shaping environmental policies.
3. Accountability: Pressure groups hold the government accountable by monitoring its policies and actions and raising public awareness about issues that may not be on the political agenda. For example, the Right to Information (RTI) movement in India led to the enactment of the RTI Act in 2005, which has enhanced transparency and accountability in governance.
4. Check on Political Parties: Pressure groups act as a check on political parties by exposing corruption, nepotism, and inefficiency in the government. This helps in maintaining the integrity of the democratic system.
In conclusion, both political parties and pressure groups are indispensable components of a democratic system as they perform complementary roles. While political parties are responsible for representation, policy formulation, and government formation, pressure groups ensure pluralism, policy influence, and accountability. Together, they contribute to the smooth functioning and sustenance of democracy. 

c) “Marxist approach to the study of international relations has lost its relevance in the post-cold war era.” Comment.

The Marxist approach to the study of international relations (IR) has indeed faced challenges in maintaining its relevance in the post-Cold War era. However, it is essential to recognize that while its significance may have diminished, it has not entirely lost its usefulness in understanding contemporary global politics.
Marxism as an IR theory is rooted in the ideas of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, who emphasized the role of class struggle and economic factors in shaping political and social relations. The Marxist approach to IR primarily focuses on the unequal distribution of wealth and power in the international system and stresses the dominance of capitalist states and multinational corporations in perpetuating global inequality.
During the Cold War, the Marxist approach was particularly relevant as the world was divided between the capitalist West, led by the United States, and the communist East, led by the Soviet Union. The ideological clash between the two superpowers provided fertile ground for the application of Marxist theory in understanding the dynamics of the international system.
However, with the end of the Cold War and the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, the bipolar world order gave way to a unipolar system dominated by the United States. The ideological struggle between capitalism and communism seemed to have reached a conclusion, with capitalism emerging as the triumphant economic system. Consequently, the relevance of Marxism as a tool for analyzing international relations appeared to be significantly diminished.
There are several reasons why the Marxist approach has struggled to maintain its relevance in the post-Cold War era:
1. The End of the Ideological Struggle: The end of the Cold War appeared to signal the triumph of liberal democracy and capitalism over communism. As a result, the ideological struggle that had defined the international system for much of the 20th century seemed to have come to an end, leaving little room for Marxist analysis.
2. The Rise of New Issues and Actors: In the post-Cold War era, issues such as terrorism, climate change, and cyber warfare have emerged as key concerns in international relations. Additionally, non-state actors, including multinational corporations, non-governmental organizations, and transnational advocacy networks, have gained prominence. The traditional Marxist focus on class struggle and economic power dynamics does not adequately address these new challenges.
3. The Fragmentation of the Left: The collapse of the Soviet Union and the decline of Communist parties worldwide have led to a fragmentation of the political left. Without a unified, coherent alternative to liberal capitalism, the Marxist approach has struggled to maintain its influence in the field of IR.
4. The Success of Capitalism: The rapid economic growth experienced by many countries, particularly in Asia, has been attributed to their embrace of market-oriented policies. This has led some to argue that capitalism is the best system for promoting development, further undermining the appeal of Marxist critiques of global inequality.
Despite these challenges, the Marxist approach still offers valuable insights into the study of international relations. For instance, issues such as global inequality, the exploitation of labor in developing countries, and the influence of multinational corporations in shaping international policies can be better understood through a Marxist lens. Additionally, recent events, such as the 2008 financial crisis and the rise of anti-globalization movements, have highlighted the continued relevance of Marxist critiques of capitalism and the international system.
In conclusion, while the Marxist approach to the study of international relations may have lost some of its prominence in the post-Cold War era, it is not entirely irrelevant. By adapting to new realities and incorporating insights from other theoretical perspectives, the Marxist approach can continue to provide valuable contributions to our understanding of contemporary global politics. 

d) What measures have been undertaken by the United Nations for its reforms?

The United Nations (UN) has been undertaking various measures and reforms in order to improve its effectiveness and efficiency, primarily focusing on peace and security, development, and management. These reforms aim to adapt the organization to the changing global landscape and address the needs of the 21st century.
1. Peace and Security Reforms:
a) Restructuring of the UN Peacekeeping Operations: The UN has introduced several reforms to improve the effectiveness of peacekeeping missions, such as the Brahimi Report (2000) which recommended measures to enhance rapid deployment, improved planning, and a better integration of peacekeeping and peacebuilding efforts.
b) Responsibility to Protect (R2P): Adopted in 2005, R2P is a global political commitment aimed at preventing mass atrocities like genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing, and crimes against humanity. The concept has been invoked in various UN interventions, such as in the case of Libya (2011) and Mali (2013).
2. Development Reforms:
a) Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs): The UN adopted the MDGs in 2000, which set specific targets for poverty alleviation, education, health, and gender equality, among other issues. These goals were succeeded by the SDGs in 2015, which broadened the development agenda to include economic, social, and environmental dimensions.
b) Human Rights Up Front (HRuF) Initiative: Launched in 2013, the HRuF initiative aims to enhance the UN's ability to prevent and respond to serious human rights violations by strengthening coordination among UN entities and prioritizing human rights concerns in its work.
c) UN Development System Reform (2018): This reform aims to improve the coordination, accountability, and effectiveness of the UN development system, by introducing a new generation of UN Country Teams, led by an impartial Resident Coordinator, and creating a more efficient regional and global support system.
3. Management Reforms:
a) Revitalization of the UN General Assembly: Various resolutions have been adopted to enhance the role, authority, and efficiency of the General Assembly, such as streamlining its agenda, enhancing the role of the President of the General Assembly, and improving the working methods.
b) Security Council Reform: The UN has been discussing ways to reform the Security Council to make it more representative, transparent, and accountable. Proposals include expanding its membership, modifying the veto power, and improving its working methods.
c) UN Secretariat Reform: Several measures have been undertaken to improve the functioning of the UN Secretariat, such as the introduction of results-based management, strengthening of the Office of Internal Oversight Services (OIOS), and enhancing transparency and accountability through initiatives like the Global Accountability Framework.
d) System-wide coherence: The UN has been working towards greater coherence among its various agencies, funds, and programs through initiatives like "Delivering as One," which aims to promote a unified and effective UN presence at the country level.
In conclusion, the United Nations has undertaken multiple reforms in various areas, such as peace and security, development, and management, to enhance its effectiveness and adapt to the changing global landscape. However, there is an ongoing need for further reforms to ensure the organization remains relevant and capable of addressing the complex challenges of the 21st century. 

e) Discuss the five proposals made by India in the recent COP-26 conference held in Glasgow.

The 26th Conference of Parties (COP-26) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) was held in Glasgow, Scotland, in November 2021. India, as a developing country and a significant emitter of greenhouse gases, played a crucial role in the negotiations. The Indian government made five key proposals during the conference, which are as follows:
1. Panchamrit: India's Prime Minister Narendra Modi proposed a five-point action plan named 'Panchamrit' to address global climate change. The five points include:
(a) Promoting access to clean and affordable energy for all.
(b) Encouraging research and development in renewable energy, including solar and wind power.
(c) Enhancing climate adaptation and resilience measures, particularly in the agriculture sector.
(d) Promoting sustainable lifestyles and reducing carbon footprints.
(e) Expanding access to climate finance and technology for developing countries.
2. Net Zero Emissions Target by 2070: India committed to achieving net-zero greenhouse gas emissions by 2070, a significant announcement as India is the third-largest emitter of greenhouse gases. This target highlights India's ambition to balance its developmental needs with its climate change mitigation efforts, and it also places pressure on other developing countries to set similar targets.
3. Non-Fossil Energy Capacity: India pledged to increase its non-fossil fuel energy capacity to 500 GW by 2030, which is a significant step towards reducing the country's dependence on coal and other fossil fuels. This target aligns with India's goal of achieving 40% of its power generation capacity from non-fossil fuel sources by 2030, as mentioned in its Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) under the Paris Agreement.
4. Renewable Energy: India set a target of generating 50% of its electricity from renewable energy sources by 2030. This ambitious target showcases India's commitment to transitioning towards a green energy future and reducing its greenhouse gas emissions. It also highlights the importance of international cooperation and climate finance in supporting the growth of renewable energy technologies in developing countries like India.
5. Reduction in Carbon Intensity: India committed to reducing its carbon intensity (emissions per unit of GDP) by 33-35% from its 2005 levels by 2030. This target emphasizes India's focus on enhancing energy efficiency and adopting cleaner technologies in various sectors, including industries, transportation, and agriculture.
In conclusion, India's proposals at the COP-26 conference showcase its commitment to addressing climate change while balancing its developmental needs. 

Q.2. Answer the following:

a) “The post-colonial state was thought of as an entity that stood outside and above society as an autonomous agency.” Explain.         (20 Marks)

The post-colonial state refers to the political, economic, and social systems established in countries that gained independence from colonial rule. The post-colonial state is often discussed in terms of its role in shaping the newly independent nations, their political institutions, and socio-economic development.
The concept of the post-colonial state as an entity that stood outside and above society as an autonomous agency refers to the idea that the state was perceived as a separate and powerful entity, capable of controlling and directing the social and economic affairs of the newly independent countries. This notion of the post-colonial state was based on the belief that the newly formed states would be able to overcome the challenges and legacies of colonialism and lead their societies towards progress and development.
There are several factors that contributed to this perception of the post-colonial state:
1. Historical legacy: The colonial powers had established centralized and authoritative states in their colonies to maintain control over the territories and their resources. This left a strong imprint on the political institutions and the mindset of the people in the newly independent countries, which consequently influenced their understanding of the state as a powerful and autonomous entity.
2. Nationalist discourse: The anti-colonial nationalist movements that led to the independence of these countries often promoted the idea of a strong and capable state as a means to overcome the challenges of underdevelopment and to achieve self-reliance. This discourse further strengthened the perception of the post-colonial state as an autonomous agency.
3. State-led development: In the early years of independence, many post-colonial states adopted state-led development strategies, often inspired by the socialist model. The state played a central role in planning, regulating, and implementing various socio-economic policies and projects. This further reinforced the idea of the state as an autonomous agency, separate from society and capable of shaping its destiny.
4. Bureaucratic elites: The post-colonial state often relied on a strong bureaucracy to implement its policies and maintain control over society. The bureaucratic elites, who were mostly educated and trained in the colonial era, often saw themselves as the custodians of the state and its institutions, and hence promoted the idea of the state as an autonomous and powerful entity.
However, this notion of the post-colonial state as an autonomous agency has been criticized by scholars for various reasons:
1. Lack of accountability: By placing the state above society, this model often led to a lack of accountability and responsiveness of the state institutions to the needs and aspirations of the people.
2. Concentration of power: The perception of the state as an autonomous agency often led to the concentration of power in the hands of a few political and bureaucratic elites, resulting in corruption, nepotism, and authoritarianism.
3. Neglect of civil society: The emphasis on the state as an autonomous agency often led to the neglect of civil society and its role in shaping the political, economic, and social life of the post-colonial countries.
4. Failure of state-led development: The state-led development strategies often failed to deliver the desired results, leading to disillusionment with the idea of the state as an autonomous agency capable of guiding the society towards progress and development.
In conclusion, the notion of the post-colonial state as an autonomous agency has been an influential concept in the understanding of the political and institutional dynamics of the newly independent countries. However, this notion has been criticized for its various shortcomings, which have led to a rethinking of the role of the state in post-colonial societies and an emphasis on the importance of civil society, decentralization, and participatory governance. 

b) Discuss the emergence of neo-realism and its basic tenets.         (15 Marks)

The emergence of neo-realism can be traced back to the late 1970s and early 1980s as a response to the limitations of classical realism in understanding and explaining the complexities of international relations in the post-World War II era. It was primarily an attempt to revive and systematize the realist theory, which was being challenged by alternative theories like liberalism, Marxism, and constructivism. Neo-realism emerged as a dominant theoretical framework in the field of international relations, particularly in the United States, and has had a significant impact on policy formulation and analysis.

Neo-realism, also known as structural realism, was introduced by Kenneth Waltz in his seminal work, "Theory of International Politics" (1979). Waltz sought to develop a more scientific and rigorous approach to understanding international politics, which would be based on a clear set of assumptions and propositions. He argued that the classical realist focus on human nature and the behavior of individual states was inadequate to explain the patterns of conflict and cooperation in the international system.

The basic tenets of neo-realism can be summarized as follows:

1. Anarchy: Neo-realism assumes that the international system is characterized by anarchy, which means the absence of a central authority or government that can enforce rules and maintain order. This creates a self-help system, in which states are the primary actors and must rely on their own resources and capabilities to ensure their security and survival.

2. State-centric approach: Neo-realism emphasizes the centrality of states as the main actors in international politics. It recognizes the existence of non-state actors (such as international organizations and transnational corporations), but argues that they play a secondary role in shaping the outcomes of international relations.

3. Power and capabilities: Neo-realism contends that the distribution of power in the international system, measured in terms of material capabilities (military, economic, technological, etc.), is the key determinant of state behavior and the structure of the international system. States are primarily concerned with maximizing their power and security in the face of potential threats from other states.

4. Balance of power: Neo-realism argues that states seek to maintain a balance of power in the international system to prevent any single state from becoming too powerful and dominating others. This can be achieved through internal balancing (building up one's own military and economic capabilities) or external balancing (forming alliances with other states to counter a potential threat).

5. Security dilemma: Neo-realism posits that the anarchic nature of the international system creates a security dilemma for states because efforts to increase their own security (e.g., through military buildup or forming alliances) can inadvertently make other states feel threatened, prompting them to take similar actions. This can lead to arms races and escalating tensions between states, even in the absence of any genuine conflict of interests.

Examples of neo-realism in practice include:

1. The Cold War: The rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union during the Cold War can be understood through the lens of neo-realism. Both superpowers sought to maximize their power and security by building up their military capabilities, forming alliances, and engaging in proxy wars in various parts of the world. The balance of power between the two superpowers prevented a direct military confrontation and ultimately led to the collapse of the Soviet Union.

2. The rise of China: The rapid rise of China as a major global power has generated concerns about the potential for power transitions and conflicts in the international system. Neo-realists argue that the United States and its allies should adopt a strategy of containment and balancing to prevent China from becoming a dominant power and challenging the existing international order.

In conclusion, neo-realism emerged as a prominent theoretical framework in international relations by offering a systematic and parsimonious explanation of state behavior and the structure of the international system. It remains an influential perspective in both academic and policy circles, although it has been critiqued for its deterministic approach and its limited attention to non-state actors, norms, and ideas in shaping international outcomes.

c) What is ‘complex interdependence'? Discuss the role of transnational actors in the international system.         (15 Marks)

Complex interdependence refers to a concept in international relations that highlights the multiple channels of interaction and the interconnected nature of states and non-state actors within the global system. Developed by Robert Keohane and Joseph Nye in their book "Power and Interdependence" (1977), the concept challenges the traditional realist perspective that emphasizes the primacy of military power and the centrality of the state in international politics.
According to the theory of complex interdependence, states are not the only actors in the global system, and military power is not the only form of power. Instead, the international system is characterized by a diverse range of actors that interact through various channels, including economic, social, and cultural connections. This interdependence makes it difficult for states to rely solely on military power to achieve their objectives, and it encourages cooperation and coordination between actors.
Transnational actors play a significant role in the international system under complex interdependence. These actors include multinational corporations, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), international organizations, and social movements, among others. They influence international politics through various means, including through economic activities, diplomacy, advocacy, and the dissemination of information.
Some examples of the role of transnational actors in the international system are:
1. Multinational corporations: These entities have vast economic influence and play a crucial role in shaping global trade and investment patterns. For instance, companies like Apple, Amazon, and Toyota have extensive global supply chains and contribute to economic interdependence between countries.
2. International organizations: Organizations such as the United Nations, World Bank, and International Monetary Fund facilitate cooperation and dialogue among states on various issues, including peacekeeping, development, and economic stability.
3. Non-governmental organizations: NGOs play an essential role in addressing global issues such as human rights, environmental protection, and humanitarian assistance. For example, Amnesty International and Greenpeace advocate for human rights and environmental conservation, respectively.
4. Social movements: Transnational social movements like the anti-globalization movement, climate change activism, and #MeToo movement have mobilized public opinion and pressured governments to address specific issues.
In conclusion, complex interdependence highlights the interconnected nature of the global system and the diverse range of actors that play a role in shaping international politics. Transnational actors have a significant influence on the international system, contributing to the complexity of interactions and the need for cooperation and coordination among states. 

Q.3. Answer the following:

a) Explain the impact of electoral systems and cleavages in shaping party systems with reference to developing countries.         (20 Marks)

Electoral systems and cleavages play a crucial role in shaping party systems in developing countries. In this context, we will discuss the impact of electoral systems and cleavages on party systems. 
Electoral Systems
An electoral system is a set of rules that determine how votes are cast, counted, and translated into seats in a legislature. The two most common electoral systems in developing countries are the First Past the Post (FPTP) system and the Proportional Representation (PR) system.
1. First Past the Post (FPTP) System: In this system, the candidate who receives the highest number of votes in a constituency wins the seat. This system tends to encourage a two-party system, as smaller parties with less overall support may struggle to win any seats. For example, in India, the FPTP system has led to the dominance of the Indian National Congress and the Bharatiya Janata Party as the two major national parties, often at the expense of smaller regional parties.
2. Proportional Representation (PR) System: In this system, parties receive seats in proportion to their share of the vote. This system tends to encourage a multiparty system, as smaller parties have a better chance of winning seats. For example, in South Africa, the PR system has led to the emergence of multiple parties such as the African National Congress, the Democratic Alliance, and the Economic Freedom Fighters.
Cleavages:
Cleavages are divisions within a society that can be based on various factors such as ethnicity, religion, language, and class. These cleavages often influence the formation and orientation of political parties in developing countries.
1. Ethnic Cleavages: In many developing countries, ethnic cleavages have a significant impact on party systems. Political parties often form along ethnic lines, leading to the fragmentation of party systems and the rise of ethnically-based parties. For example, in Nigeria, political parties such as the People's Democratic Party and the All Progressives Congress have strong regional and ethnic bases, leading to a fragmented party system.
2. Religious Cleavages: Religious divisions can also shape party systems in developing countries. In some cases, religious parties emerge to represent the interests of specific religious groups, contributing to the fragmentation of party systems. For example, in Pakistan, religious parties such as the Jamaat-e-Islami and the Jamiat Ulema-e-Islam have played a significant role in the country's party system.
3. Linguistic Cleavages: Language can also be a significant factor in shaping party systems in developing countries. In countries with multiple linguistic groups, parties may form along linguistic lines, leading to a fragmented party system. For example, in India, linguistic divisions have led to the emergence of regional parties such as the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam in Tamil Nadu and the Telugu Desam Party in Andhra Pradesh.
4. Class Cleavages: In some developing countries, political parties may form along class lines, reflecting the interests of different socioeconomic groups. For example, in Brazil, the Workers' Party has traditionally represented the interests of the working class, while the Brazilian Social Democracy Party has been associated with the middle and upper classes.
In conclusion, electoral systems and cleavages play a significant role in shaping party systems in developing countries. The choice of electoral system can encourage either a two-party or multiparty system, while cleavages based on ethnicity, religion, language, and class can lead to the formation of parties that represent specific social groups. Understanding the impact of electoral systems and cleavages on party systems is essential for analyzing the dynamics of political competition and representation in developing countries. 

b) What is globalisation ? Why is there an intense debate about globalisation and its consequences?         (15 Marks)

Globalisation refers to the process of increasing interdependence and integration among countries, resulting in the exchange of ideas, goods, services, capital, and technology across national boundaries. It encompasses economic, political, social, and cultural dimensions and has been facilitated by advancements in technology, transportation, and communication.
The intense debate about globalisation and its consequences arises due to its varied and sometimes contradictory impacts on different countries, societies, and individuals. 
The main contentions in the debate include the following:
1. Economic benefits and disparities: While globalisation has led to unprecedented economic growth, it has also contributed to increasing income inequality and uneven distribution of benefits. For instance, developed countries have gained immensely from globalisation, while many developing countries, especially in Sub-Saharan Africa, have been left behind. Moreover, multinational corporations have profited from globalisation, but small and medium-sized enterprises in developing countries often struggle to compete.
2. Employment opportunities and job losses: Globalisation has created new employment opportunities in developing countries due to the relocation of industries and outsourcing of services. However, it has also led to job losses, particularly in developed countries, as companies shift production to low-cost locations. For example, the decline of manufacturing jobs in the United States has been attributed to globalisation and the rise of China as a manufacturing hub.
3. Cultural homogenisation and loss of cultural diversity: Globalisation has facilitated the spread of popular culture, ideas, and values, leading to greater cultural exchange and understanding. However, critics argue that it has also led to cultural homogenisation and the erosion of local cultures and traditions. For instance, the dominance of Hollywood movies and Western fast-food chains has been seen as a threat to local film industries and culinary traditions in several countries.
4. Political integration and sovereignty: Globalisation has led to increased cooperation and integration among countries, particularly in areas such as trade, security, and environmental protection. However, it has also raised concerns about the erosion of national sovereignty, as governments are increasingly influenced by international institutions and norms. For example, the European Union's integration process has been criticised for undermining the sovereignty of its member states.
5. Environmental degradation and resource depletion: Globalisation has been associated with the over-exploitation of natural resources and environmental degradation, as countries compete to exploit resources to fuel their economic growth. For instance, deforestation in the Amazon rainforest has been linked to the global demand for soy and beef, while overfishing has threatened fish stocks worldwide.
In conclusion, globalisation has had both positive and negative consequences, leading to an intense debate among scholars, policymakers, and citizens. The challenge for the future lies in managing globalisation in a way that maximises its benefits while mitigating its adverse effects, ensuring that it contributes to overall human development and global equity. 

c) Critically examine the decline of the United States of America as a hegemon and its implications for the changing international political order.         (15 Marks)

The decline of the United States of America as a hegemon has been a topic of significant debate among scholars and policymakers. This decline can be attributed to various factors, such as changing economic dynamics, shifting geopolitical landscape, and the rise of other powers challenging the US dominance. This essay will critically examine these factors and discuss their implications for the changing international political order.
One of the primary reasons for the decline of the US as a hegemon is the changing economic dynamics in the world. The 2008 global financial crisis, which originated in the United States, exposed the vulnerabilities of the US economy and led to a loss of confidence in its economic leadership. Additionally, the rise of China as a global economic powerhouse has posed a challenge to the US's economic dominance. China's economic growth, infrastructure investments, and initiatives like the Belt and Road Initiative have allowed it to expand its influence in Asia and beyond, thereby undermining the US's economic hegemony.
Another factor contributing to the decline of the US as a hegemon is the shifting geopolitical landscape. The US's interventions in Iraq and Afghanistan have not only drained its resources but also tarnished its image as a reliable global leader. Moreover, the rise of non-state actors like terrorist organizations and transnational criminal networks has further complicated the security landscape, making it difficult for the US to maintain its dominance. Furthermore, the US's withdrawal from various international agreements, such as the Paris Climate Agreement and the Iran Nuclear Deal, has raised questions about its commitment to multilateralism and global governance.
The rise of other powers, particularly China and Russia, has also contributed to the decline of the US as a hegemon. Both these countries have been expanding their military capabilities and asserting their influence in their respective regions. China's assertiveness in the South China Sea and Russia's annexation of Crimea are examples of their growing military prowess and willingness to challenge the US-led international order. Moreover, these countries have been forging new alliances and partnerships with other countries, further eroding the US's global influence.
The decline of the US as a hegemon has significant implications for the changing international political order. Firstly, it has led to a power vacuum in various regions, paving the way for regional powers to assert their dominance. For instance, in the Middle East, countries like Iran, Saudi Arabia, and Turkey have been vying for influence in the absence of a strong US presence. This has led to increased tensions and conflicts in the region, destabilizing the existing order.
Secondly, the decline of the US hegemony has given rise to a multipolar world, where multiple powers compete for influence and dominance. This has led to increased competition and rivalry among major powers, raising the potential for conflicts and disputes. For example, the US-China rivalry has escalated in recent years, with both countries engaging in a trade war and competing for influence in the Indo-Pacific region.
Lastly, the decline of the US as a hegemon has raised questions about the effectiveness of existing international institutions and norms. As the US retreats from its global leadership role, there is a growing need for reforms in international institutions to make them more inclusive and representative of the changing power dynamics. Moreover, the rise of non-state actors and the increasing importance of issues like climate change, migration, and cybersecurity underscore the need for better global governance mechanisms to address these challenges.
In conclusion, the decline of the United States as a hegemon can be attributed to changing economic dynamics, shifting geopolitical landscape, and the rise of other powers challenging its dominance. This decline has significant implications for the international political order, as it gives rise to a multipolar world with increased competition and potential for conflict. It also underscores the need for reforms in international institutions and global governance mechanisms to address the challenges of the 21st century. 

Q.4. Answer the following:

a) The modernization thesis asserts that affluence breeds stable democracy. How do you explain the success of India being the world's largest democracy as an exceptional case?         (20 Marks)

The modernization thesis suggests that as a nation becomes more economically prosperous and its citizens more educated, it is more likely to develop a stable democratic system. While this thesis seems to hold true in many cases, India stands out as an exception to this rule. Despite its relatively low per-capita income and low levels of industrialization and urbanization, India has managed to sustain and strengthen its democratic institutions since its independence in 1947.
Several factors can be attributed to India's success as the world's largest democracy:
1. Historical legacy: India's struggle for independence from British colonial rule was led by a group of leaders who were committed to the principles of democracy, secularism, and social justice. They were inspired by the principles of liberal democracy, and the Indian National Congress, which spearheaded the freedom struggle, served as a prototype for a democratic political organization. This historical legacy laid the foundation for a democratic political culture in post-independence India.
2. Strong constitutional framework: The framers of the Indian Constitution were determined to establish a democratic system of governance that would be resilient and adaptable. They created a federal structure with a strong center, an independent judiciary, and a secular and inclusive polity. This constitutional framework has provided a solid institutional basis for democratic governance in India.
3. Diversity and pluralism: India's social, religious, and linguistic diversity has contributed to its success as a democracy. The democratic system has provided a platform for various social and political groups to express their grievances and negotiate their interests. This pluralism has ensured that no single group can monopolize power or impose its will on the rest of the society.
4. Vibrant civil society: India has a robust civil society, which includes non-governmental organizations, advocacy groups, trade unions, and other voluntary associations. These organizations play a crucial role in fostering political participation, mobilizing public opinion, and holding the government accountable.
5. Free and fair elections: India has a strong tradition of conducting regular, free, and fair elections. The Election Commission of India, an independent constitutional body, has played a pivotal role in ensuring the integrity of the electoral process. This has allowed for the peaceful transfer of power and the accommodation of diverse political interests within the democratic framework.
6. Role of political parties: India has a multi-party system, with national and regional parties representing a wide range of ideologies and social groups. This has facilitated the incorporation of diverse interests into the political process and has allowed for a measure of political stability and continuity.
In conclusion, while India's success as the world's largest democracy does challenge the modernization thesis, it can be explained by a combination of historical, institutional, and societal factors. It is essential to recognize that democracy in India is not merely a product of its economic development but is deeply rooted in its historical, social, and cultural context. As such, the Indian experience offers valuable lessons for understanding the complexities of democratic consolidation and resilience in diverse societies. 

b) Explain the success of ASEAN as a regional organisation.         (15 Marks)

The success of ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations) as a regional organization can be attributed to various factors, such as its focus on economic integration, political stability, adherence to the principles of non-interference, and promotion of regional cooperation in various fields. Established in 1967, ASEAN has grown to become one of the most successful regional organizations in the world, with significant progress made in various areas.

1. Economic Integration: ASEAN has been successful in promoting economic integration among its member countries. The ASEAN Free Trade Area (AFTA) was established in 1992, which helped to reduce trade barriers and increase intra-regional trade. In 2015, the ASEAN Economic Community (AEC) was launched, which aimed to create a single market and production base within the region. As a result, ASEAN has emerged as a major economic powerhouse, with its combined GDP being the fifth-largest in the world.

2. Political Stability: ASEAN has played a crucial role in ensuring political stability and peace in the region. It has facilitated dialogue and cooperation among its member countries, which has helped to prevent conflicts and maintain peace. The Treaty of Amity and Cooperation (TAC) signed in 1976, emphasizes on the peaceful settlement of disputes and non-use of force, which has contributed to regional stability.

3. Non-Interference: One of the key principles of ASEAN is non-interference in the internal affairs of its member countries. This respect for sovereignty and non-interference has been a crucial factor in fostering trust and cooperation among its members. It has allowed the member countries to work together on various issues without fear of external intervention or influence.

4. Regional Cooperation: ASEAN has been successful in promoting regional cooperation in various fields like security, environment, disaster management, and human rights. The ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF) is an important platform for dialogue and cooperation on security issues in the region. The ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution (2002) demonstrates the organization's commitment to addressing environmental challenges collectively. Similarly, the ASEAN Coordinating Centre for Humanitarian Assistance (AHA Centre) has played a vital role in disaster management and humanitarian assistance in the region.

5. Diplomatic Influence: ASEAN's success as a regional organization has also enhanced its diplomatic influence on the global stage. It has been able to engage with major powers like the US, China, Japan, and India through various forums and dialogues, such as the East Asia Summit (EAS) and the ASEAN Plus Three (APT) mechanism. This has enabled ASEAN to play a crucial role in shaping the regional and global political landscape.

In conclusion, the success of ASEAN as a regional organization can be attributed to its focus on economic integration, political stability, adherence to the principles of non-interference, and promotion of regional cooperation in various fields. Over the years, ASEAN has emerged as an important player in the global arena and has significantly contributed to the development and progress of its member countries.

c) Explain India's relations with the European Union in the context of Brexit.         (15 Marks)

India's relations with the European Union (EU) have evolved over the years, with both sides engaging in dialogue and cooperation across various sectors, including trade, investment, and development. The EU is India's largest trading partner, accounting for about 11.1% of India's total trade in goods in 2019. Brexit, the United Kingdom's (UK) decision to leave the EU, has had implications for India's relations with both the EU and the UK.

In the context of Brexit, India's relations with the EU can be analyzed through the following aspects:

1. Trade and Investment: With the UK's exit from the EU, India has lost one of its primary entry points into the European market. Therefore, India needs to recalibrate its trade and investment strategies to engage more effectively with the remaining 27 EU member states. For example, India can explore opportunities to strengthen its ties with countries like Germany, France, and the Netherlands to ensure continued access to the European market.

2. Bilateral Trade Agreements: Given the UK's departure from the EU, India needs to negotiate separate trade agreements with the EU and the UK. India and the EU have been negotiating a comprehensive Free Trade Agreement (FTA) called the Broad-based Trade and Investment Agreement (BTIA) since 2007, but progress has been slow. Brexit provides an opportunity for India to re-engage with the EU on this front, considering the EU's renewed interest in the Indo-Pacific region. Simultaneously, India can explore a separate FTA with the UK to ensure market access and leverage the UK's interest in securing trade deals post-Brexit.

3. Strategic Partnerships: Brexit has led to a reconfiguration of global power dynamics, with the EU and the UK looking to strengthen their strategic partnerships. India can take advantage of this situation to deepen its engagement with both the EU and the UK in areas such as defense, counter-terrorism, cybersecurity, and climate change. For instance, India and the EU recently held their first maritime security dialogue, reflecting their shared interest in maintaining a rules-based order in the Indo-Pacific region.

4. Cooperation on Global Governance: The UK's exit from the EU has raised questions about the future of the EU's role in global governance. India can collaborate with the EU to address global challenges such as climate change, sustainable development, and international peace and security. The recent India-EU Leaders' Meeting in May 2021 resulted in the adoption of the India-EU Connectivity Partnership, which aims to enhance cooperation on digital, energy, transport, and people-to-people connectivity.

5. Indian Diaspora: The large Indian diaspora in the UK has played a crucial role in fostering India's ties with the EU. Post-Brexit, India must ensure that the rights and interests of its diaspora in the UK are protected, as the UK adopts new immigration policies. This would require close coordination with both the UK and the EU.

In conclusion, Brexit presents both challenges and opportunities for India's relations with the European Union. It necessitates a reorientation of India's trade and investment strategies, while also opening up new avenues for strategic partnerships and cooperation on global governance. By engaging proactively with both the EU and the UK, India can effectively navigate the complexities of the post-Brexit landscape and strengthen its ties with the European region.