UPSC Mains Answer PYQ 2021: PSIR Paper 2 (Section- B) | PSIR Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

SECTION ‘B’

Q.5. Answer the following in about 150 words each:         (10 x 5 = 50 Marks)

a). Discuss the strategic implications of India's 'Look East Policy' transforming into 'Act East Policy'.

The 'Look East Policy' was initiated by the Indian government in the early 1990s to foster economic and strategic relations with the countries of Southeast Asia. The policy aimed to improve India's engagement with the economically vibrant East Asia and Southeast Asia, which had been neglected in the past due to the focus on the Non-Aligned Movement and developing relations with major powers like the US and the Soviet Union.
In recent years, the 'Look East Policy' has evolved into the 'Act East Policy,' which has a broader scope and aims to deepen economic integration, strengthen security cooperation, and enhance cultural ties with countries in the East and Southeast Asia region. This policy shift has several strategic implications for India, as discussed below:
1. Economic Implications: The 'Act East Policy' seeks to strengthen economic integration with East and Southeast Asia, which are the fastest-growing regions in the world. This economic engagement will facilitate India's access to new markets, increase trade and investment, and promote regional value chains. For example, India has become an active participant in regional forums such as the ASEAN-India Free Trade Area, the Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP), and the Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation (BIMSTEC).
2. Security Implications: The 'Act East Policy' aims to enhance security cooperation with countries in the region to address traditional and non-traditional security challenges. India has been conducting joint military exercises, sharing intelligence, and providing capacity-building assistance to regional countries, such as the trilateral Malabar naval exercises with the US and Japan. India has also stepped up its engagement with the ASEAN Defense Ministers' Meeting Plus (ADMM-Plus) and the East Asia Summit (EAS) to strengthen regional security architecture.
3. Geopolitical Implications: The 'Act East Policy' seeks to counterbalance China's growing influence in the region by deepening India's strategic partnerships with countries like Japan, South Korea, Vietnam, and Australia. This policy also aims to strengthen India's role in shaping the regional order and promoting a rules-based order. For example, India, along with Japan, the US, and Australia, has formed the Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (Quad) to ensure a free, open, and inclusive Indo-Pacific region.
4. Cultural Implications: The 'Act East Policy' seeks to enhance India's cultural ties with East and Southeast Asia, which share historical, religious, and cultural links with India. By promoting people-to-people exchanges, educational linkages, and cultural cooperation, India aims to foster a better understanding of its rich cultural heritage and strengthen its soft power in the region. For example, India has been promoting the revival of the ancient Nalanda University in Bihar as an international center for learning and research.
5. Infrastructure Implications: The 'Act East Policy' prioritizes the development of connectivity infrastructure between India and East and Southeast Asia, which is crucial for enhancing trade, investment, and people-to-people ties. India has been investing in various connectivity projects such as the India-Myanmar-Thailand Trilateral Highway, the Kaladan Multimodal Transit Transport Project, and the Mekong-India Economic Corridor.
In conclusion, the transformation of India's 'Look East Policy' into the 'Act East Policy' has significant strategic implications for India's economic, security, geopolitical, cultural, and infrastructure interests. By actively engaging with East and Southeast Asia, India aims to strengthen its regional presence, counter the growing influence of China, and shape the emerging regional order in line with its interests and values. 

b). Explain the philosophical foundations of India's foreign policy.

The philosophical foundations of India's foreign policy are rooted in its ancient civilization, historical experiences, and cultural ethos. These foundations have helped shape India's worldview and guide its approach to international relations. There are several key philosophical principles that underpin India's foreign policy.
1. Panchsheel or Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence: This doctrine, jointly propounded by India and China in 1954, has been a cornerstone of India's foreign policy. The five principles are mutual respect for territorial integrity and sovereignty, mutual non-aggression, mutual non-interference in internal affairs, equality and mutual benefit, and peaceful coexistence. These principles reflect India's commitment to maintaining peaceful and friendly relations with all countries, respecting their sovereignty, and promoting cooperation based on the principles of justice and equality.
2. Non-alignment: As a newly independent nation, India sought to maintain its strategic autonomy and not align itself with any power bloc during the Cold War. This policy of non-alignment allowed India to pursue its national interests independently and develop relationships with both the Eastern and Western blocs. The Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), founded in 1961, was a platform for India and other newly independent nations to collaborate and coordinate their foreign policies. The principle of non-alignment continues to guide India's foreign policy even in the post-Cold War era, as it seeks to maintain a balance between the major powers and promote a multipolar world order.
3. Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam: This ancient Indian concept, which means "the world is one family," underpins India's vision of a cooperative and inclusive global order. It reflects India's commitment to fostering friendly relations, dialogue, and understanding among nations and promoting a global community based on shared values, interdependence, and mutual respect. This philosophy is evident in India's approach to multilateralism, regional cooperation, and its support for the United Nations and other international organizations.
4. Non-use of force and peaceful resolution of disputes: India has consistently advocated for the non-use of force and the peaceful resolution of disputes in international relations. This principle is rooted in India's historical experiences and its civilizational ethos of ahimsa (non-violence) and tolerance. India's adherence to this principle is evident in its support for disarmament, denuclearization, and the peaceful settlement of disputes through negotiation, arbitration, and other means, as enshrined in the UN Charter.
5. Commitment to democracy, human rights, and the rule of law: India's foreign policy is guided by its commitment to the principles of democracy, human rights, and the rule of law. As the world's largest democracy, India seeks to promote these values in its bilateral and multilateral engagements. India's support for democratic institutions and processes, human rights, and the rule of law is evident in its engagement with countries in its neighborhood and beyond, as well as its participation in international forums such as the UN Human Rights Council and the Commonwealth.
Examples of India's foreign policy reflecting these philosophical foundations include:
(a) India's engagement with its neighbors, such as the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC), reflects its commitment to regional cooperation, dialogue, and peaceful resolution of disputes.
(b) India's participation in the BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa) grouping demonstrates its commitment to fostering a multipolar world order and promoting cooperation among emerging economies.
(c) India's role in the International Solar Alliance (ISA) highlights its commitment to sustainable development, global cooperation, and addressing climate change.
(d) India's commitment to peaceful resolution of disputes is evident in its handling of border disputes with China and its engagement with Pakistan through various confidence-building measures and dialogue processes.
(e) India's active engagement with the UN, including its contributions to peacekeeping missions, showcases its commitment to promoting peace, security, and the rule of law in the international arena.
In conclusion, the philosophical foundations of India's foreign policy are deeply rooted in its civilizational values, historical experiences, and cultural ethos. These principles continue to guide India's foreign policy as it navigates an increasingly complex and interconnected global landscape. 

c). Explain India’s position on the waiver of intellectual property rights on COVID-19 vaccines in WTO.

India's position on the waiver of intellectual property rights (IPR) on COVID-19 vaccines in the World Trade Organization (WTO) is in favor of a temporary waiver to ensure equitable access to vaccines for all countries, especially low-income and developing nations. This stance is based on the principles of global solidarity and the urgent need to combat the pandemic collectively.
In October 2020, India and South Africa jointly submitted a proposal to the WTO, requesting a waiver of certain provisions of the Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) agreement for the prevention, containment, and treatment of COVID-19. The proposal seeks to temporarily suspend the enforcement of patents, industrial designs, copyrights, and other IPRs related to COVID-19 vaccines, diagnostics, and therapeutics, allowing countries to produce and distribute these essential medical supplies without the fear of legal repercussions.
The rationale behind India's position can be understood through the following points:
1. Global solidarity and cooperation: India's stance is based on the understanding that the global community needs to come together to combat the pandemic. By waiving IPR on COVID-19 vaccines and related products, countries can pool their resources, knowledge, and expertise to accelerate the development and distribution of vaccines and treatments.
2. Equitable access to vaccines: India emphasizes the need to ensure that all countries, irrespective of their economic status, have equitable access to COVID-19 vaccines. The temporary waiver of IPR can help bridge the gap between high-income and low-income countries by enabling local production and reducing the reliance on a few pharmaceutical companies that hold the patents.
3. Public health emergency: The COVID-19 pandemic is an unprecedented global health crisis. India argues that the waiver of IPR is crucial to respond to the urgent demands of the public health emergency, which should take precedence over commercial interests and patent rights.
4. Past precedent: India's position is also influenced by past experiences, such as the HIV/AIDS crisis, where the strict enforcement of IPR hindered access to affordable antiretroviral drugs in developing countries. By waiving IPR for COVID-19 vaccines, India aims to avoid a similar situation and ensure that life-saving vaccines are accessible to all.
5. Strengthening local production capacities: India, being a major pharmaceutical hub, emphasizes the need to strengthen local production capacities to meet the global demand for vaccines. The waiver of IPR will allow countries like India to scale up their production, thereby reducing dependency on a limited number of manufacturers and promoting self-reliance.
Despite India's strong advocacy for the waiver, there are some challenges in achieving a consensus at the WTO, as several high-income countries, including the United States and the European Union, have resisted the proposal, citing concerns over innovation and the need to protect intellectual property rights. However, the recent announcement by the Biden administration to support the waiver has generated renewed momentum in favor of the proposal, increasing the likelihood of reaching an agreement in the near future.
In conclusion, India's position on the waiver of IPR on COVID-19 vaccines in the WTO is driven by the principles of global solidarity, equitable access, and the need to prioritize public health over commercial interests. By advocating for a temporary waiver, India aims to foster international cooperation and ensure that life-saving vaccines are accessible to all, particularly low-income and developing countries. 

d). Write about the growing significance of QUAD.

The Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (QUAD) is an informal strategic forum comprising the United States, Japan, India, and Australia. The genesis of the QUAD dates back to 2007 when Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe proposed the idea of an Asian Quadrilateral, consisting of the four major democracies in the Indo-Pacific region. The primary aim of QUAD is to promote a rules-based order, respect for international law, and support for a free, open, and inclusive Indo-Pacific.
The growing significance of QUAD can be attributed to various factors:
1. Rising China: The rapid rise of China and its growing assertiveness in the Indo-Pacific have raised concerns among the QUAD member countries. The QUAD seeks to maintain the balance of power in the region and deter any potential aggression by China.
2. Maritime Security: The Indo-Pacific region is a crucial global trade route, with nearly 60% of the world's maritime trade passing through it. Ensuring the security of Sea Lines of Communication (SLOC) is a top priority for the QUAD members. Together, they strive to maintain freedom of navigation, unimpeded commerce, and adherence to international law in the region.
3. Democratic Values: The QUAD is a congregation of four like-minded democracies that share similar values and principles. It aims to promote democratic values, human rights, and the rule of law in the region. This collaboration of democracies is essential in the face of rising authoritarianism and challenges to the liberal world order.
4. Counter-terrorism and Non-proliferation: The QUAD members have a common interest in combatting terrorism and preventing the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction. They coordinate their efforts to share intelligence, enhance counter-terrorism capabilities, and prevent radicalization.
5. Disaster Relief and Humanitarian Assistance: The Indo-Pacific region is prone to natural disasters, and the QUAD members have a history of cooperation in disaster relief and humanitarian assistance. In 2004, the four countries formed the core group for relief operations following the Indian Ocean Tsunami. The QUAD seeks to strengthen this cooperation and enhance regional resilience to natural disasters.
6. Economic Cooperation: The QUAD countries are significant economic partners and have a combined GDP of over $30 trillion. They recognize the importance of economic development and regional connectivity for maintaining peace and stability in the region. Together, they promote infrastructure development, capacity building, and economic integration in the Indo-Pacific.
7. Technological Collaboration: The QUAD countries have strong technological capabilities and are committed to collaborating on cutting-edge technologies such as 5G, artificial intelligence, and critical and emerging technologies. This collaboration aims to ensure that these technologies are used responsibly and for the benefit of all.
In conclusion, the QUAD has emerged as a significant geopolitical force in the Indo-Pacific region, driven by shared strategic interests, democratic values, and concerns over the rise of China. As the QUAD expands its scope and deepens its engagement, it has the potential to shape the regional architecture and contribute to peace, stability, and prosperity in the Indo-Pacific. 

e). How does the recent takeover of Afghanistan by Taliban impact India's strategic interests?

The recent takeover of Afghanistan by the Taliban has significant implications for India's strategic interests, particularly concerning security, regional stability, and diplomatic relations. These implications can be analyzed from different perspectives, as outlined below:

1. Security concerns: The Taliban's control over Afghanistan raises the specter of increased terrorism and radicalism in the region, which could directly threaten India's national security. There is a possibility that terrorist groups such as Lashkar-e-Taiba and Jaish-e-Mohammed, operating from Pakistani soil, may find support and safe havens in Taliban-controlled Afghanistan. This could potentially escalate cross-border terrorism in Jammu and Kashmir and other parts of India.

2. Regional stability: The Taliban's ascent to power in Afghanistan has created a power vacuum and uncertainties about the future of the region. The situation could lead to a surge in violence and instability, which may spill over into neighboring countries, including India. Moreover, the possibility of increased proxies and competition among regional powers like Pakistan, China, Iran, and Russia may exacerbate tensions and undermine India's strategic interests in the region.

3. Diplomatic relations: India has invested significantly in Afghanistan over the past two decades, providing developmental assistance and capacity-building support to the Afghan government, including the construction of the Afghan Parliament building, the Salma Dam, and the Zaranj-Delaram Highway. The Taliban's takeover may jeopardize these investments and strain India's diplomatic engagement with Afghanistan. Additionally, India's support for the democratic government in Afghanistan may put it at odds with the Taliban regime, making it difficult for India to maintain its influence and protect its strategic interests in the country.

4. Impact on India's regional outreach: The evolving situation in Afghanistan could affect India's regional connectivity projects, such as the Chabahar port in Iran and the International North-South Transport Corridor. These projects are crucial for India's outreach towards Central Asia and to counterbalance China's Belt and Road Initiative. The instability in Afghanistan may hinder the progress of these projects, thus impacting India's strategic interests.

5. Implications for India's global standing: As a responsible regional power and a member of various international forums, India has been actively advocating for peace, stability, and democratic governance in Afghanistan. The Taliban's return to power may raise questions about India's ability to shape the regional security environment, potentially affecting its global standing and aspirations for a permanent seat on the United Nations Security Council.

In conclusion, the Taliban's takeover of Afghanistan poses several challenges to India's strategic interests. The situation demands a proactive, flexible, and pragmatic approach from India to safeguard its national security, maintain regional stability, and protect its diplomatic and economic investments. This may involve engaging with various stakeholders, including regional powers and the Taliban, to ensure that India's strategic interests are not compromised.

Q.6. Answer the following:

a). “Non-alignment was little more than a rational strategy on the part of a materially weak India to maximize its interests with a bipolar distribution of global power.” Comment.         (20 Marks)

Non-alignment was a foreign policy strategy adopted by India soon after gaining independence in 1947. It aimed at maintaining a neutral stance in the Cold War scenario and not aligning with either of the two major power blocs, namely the United States and the Soviet Union. This policy was primarily conceived and implemented by India's first Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru, who believed in the importance of preserving the newly-acquired sovereignty and autonomy of the Indian state. The Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) was established in 1961, in which India played a key role, along with other developing countries such as Yugoslavia, Egypt, and Indonesia.
The statement that non-alignment was a rational strategy for a materially weak India to maximize its interests in a bipolar world is true to a certain extent. The following points provide reasons for the adoption of non-alignment by India and its effectiveness:
1. Material Weakness: At the time of independence, India was a newly formed nation with limited resources and capabilities. It was facing numerous challenges such as poverty, illiteracy, and economic underdevelopment. Aligning with either of the superpowers would have meant compromising its sovereignty and autonomy in exchange for material support. Hence, non-alignment allowed India to focus on its domestic development without getting entangled in the power politics of the Cold War.
2. Strategic Autonomy: Non-alignment provided India with the necessary strategic autonomy to pursue its national interests without being pressured by any of the superpowers. It allowed India to maintain friendly relations with both the US and the Soviet Union, without being part of their respective military alliances. This autonomy helped India in securing assistance from both the blocs, such as the US support for India's Green Revolution and the Soviet Union's assistance in building India's heavy industries.
3. Global Influence: By not aligning with any of the power blocs, India managed to carve out a unique position for itself in global politics. India emerged as a leader of the developing world and played an active role in advocating for the rights and interests of these countries. This helped India to gain respect and goodwill among the non-aligned countries, which in turn increased its global influence.
4. Peaceful Coexistence: One of the primary goals of non-alignment was to promote peaceful coexistence among nations. India successfully used the NAM platform to advocate for disarmament, decolonization, and the establishment of a more equitable international economic order. This not only helped India to safeguard its interests but also played a crucial role in maintaining peace and stability in the world.
However, the effectiveness of non-alignment in achieving its objectives can be questioned:
1. Limited Leverage: Despite being a leader of the non-aligned countries, India's influence in the bipolar world was limited. During the 1971 Indo-Pakistan war, India struggled to gain international support for its intervention in East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) to stop the genocide, and the US even sent its Seventh Fleet to the Bay of Bengal as a show of force against India. This demonstrates that non-alignment could not always protect India's interests effectively.
2. Economic Dependence: Though non-alignment allowed India to focus on self-reliance, it also led to economic dependence on the Soviet Union, especially during the 1970s and 1980s. The collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 left India in a precarious position and forced it to undertake liberalization and economic reforms to integrate with the global economy.
In conclusion, non-alignment was indeed a rational strategy for a materially weak India to maximize its interests in a bipolar world. It provided India with strategic autonomy, global influence, and allowed it to concentrate on its domestic development. However, its effectiveness in protecting India's interests was limited in certain situations, and it led to economic dependence on the Soviet Union. With the end of the Cold War and the emergence of a multipolar world, non-alignment has evolved into a more pragmatic and issue-based approach, allowing India to engage with various countries based on its interests and priorities. 

b). Examine the Geo-strategic points of contention in the bilateral relationship between India and China.         (15 Marks)

The bilateral relationship between India and China is marked by a complex interplay of cooperation and competition, with geo-strategic points of contention posing significant challenges to the ties between the two countries. Some of the major points of contention in the India-China bilateral relationship include:

1. Border disputes: The unresolved border dispute between India and China has been a major source of tension in their bilateral relations. There are primarily two main areas of contention – Aksai Chin in the western sector, which is currently under Chinese control, and Arunachal Pradesh in the eastern sector, which is administered by India. The 1962 Sino-Indian War was fought over these territories, and even after multiple rounds of diplomatic negotiations, the issue remains unresolved.

2. China's increasing presence in South Asia: China's growing influence in India's neighborhood through initiatives like the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) has raised concerns in New Delhi. India views China's infrastructure projects in countries like Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Nepal, and Bangladesh as part of its broader strategy to encircle and contain India.

3. Tibet issue: India has been home to the Tibetan government-in-exile and the Dalai Lama since 1959. China views the Tibetan issue as a challenge to its sovereignty and has repeatedly accused India of interfering in its internal affairs. India's support for the Tibetan cause has been a sore point in the bilateral relationship.

4. The India-Pakistan-China triangle: The strategic rivalry between India and Pakistan is further complicated by China's close relationship with Pakistan. The China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC), a flagship project of the BRI, passes through Pakistan-occupied Kashmir (PoK), which India claims as its territory. India sees the CPEC and the increasing China-Pakistan military cooperation as an attempt to undermine its strategic interests in the region.

5. China's opposition to India's membership in the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG): China has consistently opposed India's bid for membership in the NSG, citing India's non-signatory status to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) as the primary reason. This has emerged as a significant point of contention between the two countries as India seeks to expand its civil nuclear energy program and diversify its sources of nuclear technology.

6. Competition in the Indian Ocean Region (IOR): The Indian Ocean has emerged as a key area of strategic competition between India and China. China's growing naval presence in the region, including the establishment of military bases in Djibouti and the development of ports in countries like Sri Lanka, Pakistan, and Myanmar, has raised concerns in India. India views these developments as part of China's 'String of Pearls' strategy aimed at encircling India and dominating the IOR.

In conclusion, the geo-strategic points of contention in the India-China bilateral relationship are rooted in their historical disputes, competing regional ambitions, and the shifting balance of power in Asia. To manage these contentious issues and prevent them from escalating into conflict, both countries must engage in dialogue and confidence-building measures, even as they continue to compete for influence in the region.

c). Write a brief analysis of the ethnic conflicts and cross-border migrations along India-Myanmar and India-Bangladesh borders.         (15 Marks)

The India-Myanmar and India-Bangladesh borders have been the sites of numerous ethnic conflicts and cross-border migrations over the years. These conflicts and migrations are driven by a range of factors, including historical, political, economic, and social issues. The following brief analysis seeks to understand the roots of these conflicts and migrations and their implications for the region.
1. Historical factors: The borders between India, Myanmar, and Bangladesh were arbitrarily drawn by the British colonial administration during the Partition of India in 1947. As a result, several ethnic groups found themselves divided across national boundaries, leading to tensions and disputes between the respective communities and states.
2. Ethnic conflicts: The ethnic conflicts along the India-Myanmar border can be primarily attributed to the presence of several insurgent groups such as the Naga, Kuki, and Chin tribes, fighting for autonomy or secession from Myanmar. The Indian government, while maintaining cordial relations with Myanmar, has had to contend with these groups' activities, which sometimes spill over into Indian territory. The India-Bangladesh border, on the other hand, has witnessed tensions between the majority Bengali population in Bangladesh and the indigenous tribal communities in the Indian states of Tripura and Assam. The influx of Bengali-speaking migrants has led to clashes with the local communities, who feel threatened by the demographic change.
3. Cross-border migrations: The India-Myanmar border has seen significant cross-border migrations due to the protracted conflict in Myanmar, with refugees fleeing persecution and violence, and seeking shelter in India. Similarly, the India-Bangladesh border has experienced large-scale migrations, both legal and illegal, driven by economic disparities and environmental factors such as river erosion and flooding. These migrations have raised concerns about national security, demographic change, and the strain on resources in the border regions.
4. Political factors: The border regions of India-Myanmar and India-Bangladesh have often been used by political parties to mobilize support and gain electoral mileage by playing on ethnic and nationalistic sentiments. This has further exacerbated ethnic tensions and fueled conflicts in the region.
5. Economic factors: The economic disparities between the border regions of India-Myanmar and India-Bangladesh have contributed to cross-border migrations. For example, the porous border between Bangladesh and India has led to a substantial influx of economic migrants seeking better opportunities in India. This has resulted in competition for scarce resources, leading to tensions and conflicts between the host communities and the migrants.
In conclusion, the ethnic conflicts and cross-border migrations along the India-Myanmar and India-Bangladesh borders are complex issues that can be attributed to a combination of historical, political, economic, and social factors. Addressing these issues requires a multifaceted approach involving diplomatic engagement, development initiatives, and cooperation among the countries in the region. Concurrently, a focus on inclusive policies and the protection of minority rights is essential to mitigate the potential for further conflicts and migrations. 

Q.7. Answer the following:

a). Why is South Asia considered as the world's politically and economically least integrated region? Explain.         (20 Marks)

South Asia is considered the world's politically and economically least integrated region due to a multitude of factors that have emanated from historical, political, economic, and socio-cultural aspects. These factors have created an environment of mistrust, insecurity, and lack of cooperation among the countries in the region, which in turn has led to the low levels of integration. The following points elaborate on these factors:
1. Historical legacies: The bitter history of colonialism, the trauma of Partition and its aftermath, and the unresolved territorial disputes (e.g., India-Pakistan over Kashmir, India-China over border issues) have contributed to an environment of mistrust and animosity among the countries in South Asia. These historical legacies have impeded any significant progress in regional integration.
2. Political instability: South Asia is characterized by a high degree of political instability, with frequent regime changes, military coups, and internal conflicts in countries like Pakistan, Nepal, Sri Lanka, and Bangladesh. This constant state of flux has made it difficult for the countries to engage in long-term cooperation and pursue regional integration.
3. Security concerns: The security dynamics in South Asia have been dominated by the rivalry between India and Pakistan, which has led to multiple wars and the development of nuclear weapons by both countries. Other regional conflicts, such as the civil war in Sri Lanka, the Maoist insurgency in Nepal, and terrorism, have further exacerbated security concerns. These security challenges have diverted resources away from economic development and have hindered regional integration initiatives.
4. Economic disparities and underdevelopment: South Asia is home to some of the world's most impoverished countries, with high levels of poverty, illiteracy, and unemployment. The uneven distribution of wealth and resources among the countries has led to competition rather than cooperation. Additionally, the poor infrastructure, lack of investment, and low levels of intra-regional trade have made it difficult for the countries to pursue economic integration.
5. Socio-cultural differences: South Asia is a diverse region with various ethnic, linguistic, and religious groups. These differences have often led to tensions and conflicts within and between countries, making it difficult to find common ground for regional integration.
6. Weak regional institutions: South Asia has weak regional institutions like the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC), which has not been successful in promoting regional integration due to the lack of consensus among its members and the dominance of bilateral issues. Moreover, the absence of a strong regional economic bloc or a regional security framework has hindered the process of integration.
7. Influence of external powers: The presence and interests of external powers such as the United States, China, and Russia in South Asia have impacted the region's integration process. These powers have often played a role in exacerbating existing tensions and rivalries among the countries, making it difficult for them to come together and pursue regional cooperation.
In conclusion, the complex interplay of historical, political, economic, and socio-cultural factors has led to South Asia being considered the world's politically and economically least integrated region. The challenges faced by the region require a concerted effort by the countries involved to build trust, address security concerns, and promote economic development in order to achieve the goal of regional integration. 

b). How do the constituent states influence the foreign policy making process in India?         (15 Marks)

The constituent states in India play a significant role in influencing the foreign policy-making process. Although the central government has the primary responsibility for formulating and implementing foreign policy, the interests and concerns of the states have increasingly become crucial in shaping India's foreign policy decisions. This can be attributed to the growing importance of federalism, regional aspirations, and economic interdependence between states and other countries. Some examples of how constituent states influence the foreign policy-making process in India are as follows:

1. Border states and security issues: States that share borders with neighboring countries have significant stakes in foreign policy decisions related to border security, territorial disputes, and cross-border terrorism. For instance, the state of Punjab has been vocal about its concerns regarding cross-border terrorism from Pakistan, while states like Arunachal Pradesh and Sikkim have a direct interest in India's relations with China due to their territorial disputes.

2. Economic interdependence: With the liberalization of the Indian economy and the growing importance of international trade, states have become more proactive in forging economic ties with other countries. For example, the state of Gujarat has been at the forefront of promoting trade and investment ties with countries like Japan and China, while Kerala has actively engaged with the Gulf countries for remittances and employment opportunities for its citizens.

3. Cultural and historical linkages: Some states have strong cultural and historical linkages with neighboring countries that influence foreign policy decisions. For instance, the state of Tamil Nadu has close ties with Sri Lanka due to the presence of ethnic Tamils in Sri Lanka, which has influenced India's policy towards the Sri Lankan civil war and the Tamil issue. Similarly, West Bengal's cultural and historical ties with Bangladesh play a crucial role in shaping India's policy towards Bangladesh.

4. Regional aspirations and identity politics: The rise of regional parties and the assertion of regional identity have led to states taking a more active role in foreign policy issues that affect their interests. For example, the current West Bengal government led by the Trinamool Congress has been vocal about its concerns regarding India's policy towards Bangladesh, particularly in the context of the Teesta water-sharing agreement.

5. Role of Chief Ministers: Chief Ministers of states have increasingly become significant players in India's foreign policy-making process. They engage in diplomatic visits, sign MoUs with foreign governments, and participate in international forums to promote their state's interests. For instance, the former Andhra Pradesh Chief Minister, Chandrababu Naidu, actively engaged with countries like Singapore and Japan to attract investments for the development of the state.

In conclusion, the constituent states in India have emerged as vital stakeholders in the foreign policy-making process, shaping India's approach to various bilateral and multilateral issues. Recognizing this trend, the central government has made efforts to involve states in the foreign policy process through mechanisms like the Inter-State Council and consultations with Chief Ministers. As India's federal structure continues to evolve, the role of constituent states in foreign policy-making is likely to become even more pronounced.

c). Examine the evolution of India's role in the global nuclear order.         (15 Marks)

India's role in the global nuclear order has evolved significantly since its independence in 1947. Initially, India was an advocate of nuclear disarmament and non-proliferation, but eventually, it emerged as a nuclear-armed state with strategic interests in the region. India's nuclear journey can be assessed through various phases, including its initial commitment to disarmament, the nuclear tests of 1974 and 1998, and its engagement with global nuclear powers.
1. Early phase (1947-1964): Commitment to disarmament and non-proliferation
India's first Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru, was a strong advocate of nuclear disarmament and non-proliferation. Under his leadership, India played a crucial role in the establishment of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) in 1957. India also supported the Partial Test Ban Treaty (PTBT) in 1963, which aimed at prohibiting nuclear tests in the atmosphere, outer space, and underwater.
2. Post-1964 phase: Shift in India's nuclear policy
After China conducted its first nuclear test in 1964, India's nuclear policy underwent a significant shift. Concerned about China's growing nuclear capabilities, India started exploring the possibility of developing its nuclear weapons program. However, India continued to support disarmament and non-proliferation efforts, such as the Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) in 1968. However, India refused to sign the NPT, arguing that it was discriminatory and favored the existing nuclear powers.
3. 1974: India's first nuclear test
In 1974, India conducted its first nuclear test, code-named "Smiling Buddha," which marked a significant shift in India's nuclear policy. While India maintained that the test was for peaceful purposes, it demonstrated India's capability to develop nuclear weapons. This test led to international concerns about nuclear proliferation, and India faced sanctions from several countries, including the United States and Canada.
4. 1998: India's second nuclear test
India conducted its second round of nuclear tests in 1998, code-named "Operation Shakti." This time, India openly declared itself as a nuclear-armed state. The tests led to widespread international condemnation, and India faced economic sanctions from several countries. However, India's nuclear tests also prompted Pakistan to conduct its nuclear tests, which further complicated the regional security dynamics.
5. Post-1998: Engaging with global nuclear powers
After the 1998 nuclear tests, India began engaging with global nuclear powers, particularly the United States, to gain recognition as a responsible nuclear state. The landmark India-US civil nuclear deal in 2008 was a significant step in this direction. The deal allowed India to access nuclear technology and fuel for civilian purposes, despite not being a signatory to the NPT. This deal also paved the way for India's membership in the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) and other export control regimes.
6. India's role in the global nuclear order today
Today, India is recognized as a responsible nuclear power, with a "No First Use" policy and a credible minimum deterrence doctrine. India also actively participates in various multilateral forums related to nuclear disarmament, non-proliferation, and nuclear security. However, India's quest for membership in the NSG remains a contentious issue due to opposition from countries like China. India's continued commitment to disarmament and non-proliferation, along with its responsible nuclear behavior, will play a crucial role in shaping the global nuclear order in the future.
In conclusion, India's role in the global nuclear order has evolved from being a staunch advocate of disarmament and non-proliferation to a nuclear-armed state with strategic interests. Its engagement with global nuclear powers, particularly the United States, and its responsible nuclear behavior have earned it recognition as a responsible nuclear state. As India continues to pursue its strategic interests in the region, its commitment to disarmament and non-proliferation will remain crucial in shaping the global nuclear order. 

Q.8. Answer the following:

a). “Relations between India and Russia are rooted in history mutual trust/and mutually beneficial cooperation.' Discuss.         (20 Marks)

India and Russia have a long-standing and multifaceted relationship dating back to the early days of the Cold War when India followed the Non-Alignment Movement policy. The relationship is rooted in history, mutual trust, and mutually beneficial cooperation, which has helped both countries navigate the complexities of global politics and economics. This partnership has been marked by political, strategic, economic, and cultural cooperation.

1. Political Cooperation: The India-Russia relationship started with the signing of the Treaty of Peace and Friendship in 1971. Both countries have supported each other in various international forums such as the United Nations, G20, BRICS, and the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO). The annual India-Russia bilateral summits, which started in 2000, have provided a strong impetus to this strategic partnership and have resulted in numerous agreements and joint declarations. Russia has consistently supported India's bid for a permanent seat in the UN Security Council.

2. Defense and Strategic Cooperation: Defense cooperation is a major pillar of the India-Russia strategic partnership. Russia has been a leading arms supplier to India, accounting for over 60% of India's defense imports. Key defense deals include the Sukhoi Su-30MKI fighter aircraft, T-90 tanks, and the S-400 Triumf air defense system. Moreover, both countries collaborate on the development of the BrahMos supersonic cruise missile and the fifth-generation fighter aircraft. The two nations also participate in joint military exercises, such as the Indra series, which enhances their interoperability and strengthens their strategic partnership.

3. Nuclear Energy and Space Cooperation: Russia is a key partner in India's civilian nuclear energy program. The Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant in Tamil Nadu, built with Russian assistance, is the largest nuclear power station in India. Both countries are also working on the Rooppur Nuclear Power Plant project in Bangladesh, marking a trilateral cooperation in the field of nuclear energy. India and Russia have a long history of cooperation in space. The USSR launched India's first satellite, Aryabhatta, in 1975, and India's first cosmonaut, Rakesh Sharma, traveled to space on a Soviet spacecraft in 1984. More recently, both countries have agreed to collaborate on India's Gaganyaan mission and the Russian Lunar program.

4. Economic Cooperation: India and Russia have set a target of increasing bilateral trade to $30 billion by 2025. Both nations are working on enhancing investments, trade in local currencies, and cooperation in sectors such as energy, pharmaceuticals, and information technology. The International North-South Transport Corridor, which connects India with Russia through Iran, is expected to boost trade by reducing transportation costs and time.

5. Cultural Exchanges and People-to-People Contacts: India and Russia share a long history of cultural exchanges. The popularity of Indian films and the practice of yoga in Russia and the interest in Russian literature in India are examples of this cultural connection. Both countries also have a robust scholarship program, which has facilitated the exchange of students and academics between the two nations.

In conclusion, the India-Russia relationship is rooted in history, mutual trust, and mutually beneficial cooperation. The partnership has weathered various geopolitical challenges and has evolved over time to address contemporary issues. The multifaceted cooperation between the two nations has not only strengthened their bilateral ties but has also contributed to regional and global stability.

b). Discuss the “Sustainable Development Goals' as set by the United Nations.         (15 Marks)

The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are a collection of 17 global goals set by the United Nations General Assembly in 2015 as a part of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. These goals aim to address various global challenges, including poverty, inequality, climate change, environmental degradation, peace, and justice. Adopted by all 193 UN member states, the SDGs serve as a blueprint for countries to work towards a more sustainable and inclusive future.
The SDGs are relevant in understanding the role and significance of international organizations, global governance mechanisms, and international cooperation for sustainable development.
Some examples of the SDGs are:
1. Goal 1: No Poverty - This goal aims to end poverty in all its forms everywhere it highlights the need for international cooperation and assistance in addressing poverty and underdevelopment in the Global South. This can be linked to the dependency theory and the role of international financial institutions like the World Bank and International Monetary Fund (IMF) in providing aid and development assistance.
2. Goal 2: Zero Hunger - This goal seeks to end hunger, achieve food security, improve nutrition, and promote sustainable agriculture. It underscores the need for global cooperation in addressing food security issues and the importance of trade policies, agricultural subsidies, and the role of the World Trade Organization (WTO) in shaping global food systems.
3. Goal 13: Climate Action - This goal aims to take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts. it stresses the importance of international negotiations, treaties, and commitments like the Paris Agreement, Kyoto Protocol, and the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in addressing climate change. It also brings attention to the role of non-state actors, such as NGOs, corporations, and civil society, in climate action.
4. Goal 16: Peace, Justice, and Strong Institutions - This goal seeks to promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, provide access to justice for all, and build effective, accountable, and inclusive institutions at all levels. It highlights the role of international organizations like the United Nations and its agencies in promoting peace, security, and good governance. Additionally, it emphasizes the importance of international law, human rights, and conflict resolution mechanisms in maintaining global peace and order.
5. Goal 17: Partnerships for the Goals - This goal aims to strengthen the means of implementation and revitalize the global partnership for sustainable development. It underscores the significance of North-South and South-South cooperation, the role of international organizations, and the importance of global governance mechanisms in achieving the SDGs. It also highlights the need for policy coherence and coordination among different actors, including states, international organizations, civil society, and the private sector.
In conclusion, the Sustainable Development Goals set by the United Nations are an essential aspect of understanding the dynamics of global governance, international cooperation, and the role of international organizations in addressing the world's most pressing challenges. The SDGs provide a comprehensive framework for countries to work together towards a more sustainable and inclusive future. 

c). Identify the drivers of India's new interest in Africa.         (15 Marks)

India's growing interest in Africa can be attributed to several drivers, including economic, strategic, political, and cultural factors. Some of these drivers are:

1. Economic interests: Africa is a vast continent with abundant natural resources and a growing market for Indian goods and services. India seeks to tap into Africa's vast natural resources, such as oil, gas, minerals, and agricultural products, to fuel its own economic growth. For example, India imports oil from Nigeria and Angola, and minerals like gold, diamonds, and precious stones from South Africa, Botswana, and Zimbabwe.

2. Market opportunities: Africa's growing middle class and rising consumer demand present significant opportunities for Indian businesses. Indian companies like Tata, Mahindra, and Airtel have already established a presence in Africa, and many more are eyeing investment opportunities in sectors such as manufacturing, IT, pharmaceuticals, and infrastructure development.

3. Strategic interests: India seeks to enhance its strategic presence in the Indian Ocean region and counter the growing influence of China in Africa. By forging closer ties with African nations, India aims to establish a strong network of partners that can help secure its interests and contribute to regional stability. For example, India has provided military training and support to several African countries, including Mozambique, Kenya, and Tanzania, to enhance their maritime security capabilities.

4. Development cooperation: India has been actively engaging with African nations to share its developmental experience and expertise in areas such as agriculture, healthcare, education, and capacity building. The India-Africa Forum Summit, launched in 2008, has emerged as a key platform for promoting development cooperation and enhancing India's soft power in Africa.

5. Cultural and historical linkages: India and Africa share strong historical and cultural ties, dating back to ancient trade routes and the Indian diaspora's presence in Africa. These cultural linkages provide a strong foundation for India's engagement with Africa and help promote people-to-people exchanges and mutual understanding.

6. Multilateral diplomacy: India seeks to enhance its global profile and strengthen its position in multilateral forums like the United Nations. By forging closer ties with African nations, India aims to garner support for its bid for a permanent seat in the UN Security Council and other international institutions.

In conclusion, India's growing interest in Africa is driven by a combination of economic, strategic, political, and cultural factors. By engaging with Africa, India aims to secure its economic interests, enhance its strategic presence in the Indian Ocean region, promote development cooperation, and strengthen its position in international forums.