UPSC Mains Answer PYQ 2021: Sociology Paper 2 (Section- A) | Sociology Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Q.1. Write short answers, with a sociological perspective, of the following questions in about 150 words each:        (10 x 5 = 50 Marks)

a) Caste system studies in India have been dominated by the "book-view" initially, how did the entry of "field-view" bring about a balance in the study of Indian caste system? Discuss.

Caste system studies in India have been dominated by the "book-view" initially, which relied heavily on textual sources like religious scriptures, historical documents, and colonial records. However, the entry of the "field-view" brought about a balance in the study of the Indian caste system. The field-view emphasized empirical research, ethnographic studies, and participant observation, which helped in understanding the complexities, local variations, and dynamics of the caste system in the real world. It also highlighted the role of socio-economic factors, political processes, and historical changes in shaping the caste system. Thus, the combination of both book-view and field-view provided a holistic understanding of the Indian caste system and helped in debunking several myths and stereotypes associated with it.

b) What does Dr. B. R. Ambedkar mean by the concept of “Annihilation of caste"?

Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, an eminent jurist, social reformer, and the architect of the Indian Constitution, introduced the concept of "Annihilation of caste." By this, he meant the complete destruction of the caste system and the rigid social hierarchy it imposed. He believed that the caste system was responsible for social discrimination, untouchability, and exploitation of the lower castes. His vision of annihilation of caste included the abolition of caste-based identities, endogamous practices, and social restrictions, as well as the promotion of social justice, equality, and fraternity. He advocated for inter-caste marriages, conversion to other religions, and legislative measures to dismantle the caste system.

c) Discuss different forms of kinship system in India.

India is characterized by diverse forms of kinship systems, which can be broadly classified into three categories: patrilineal, matrilineal, and bilateral. The patrilineal system is the most common form, where descent and inheritance are traced through the male lineage. Examples include the Gotra system among Brahmins and the joint family system prevalent in North India. The matrilineal system, in which descent and inheritance are traced through the female lineage, is found among the Nair community in Kerala, the Khasi and Garo tribes in Meghalaya, and the Minicoy Islanders in Lakshadweep. The bilateral kinship system, where both maternal and paternal relatives are considered equally important, is found among some tribal communities in Central India and the North-Eastern states.

d) Critically examine briefly the phrase "Little 'Republics” as used to denote India's villages.

The phrase "Little Republics" was used by scholars like M.N. Srinivas and G.S. Ghurye to denote India's villages, which were conceived as autonomous and self-sufficient units, having their own social, economic, and political institutions. However, this view has been critically examined and challenged by subsequent research. Studies have shown that Indian villages are not isolated entities, but are interconnected with the larger society through networks of caste, kinship, trade, and political affiliations. The village economy is also influenced by regional, national, and global forces. Moreover, the notion of "Little Republics" tends to romanticize the village life and ignores the widespread issues of social inequality, caste discrimination, gender disparities, and power dynamics prevalent in Indian villages.

e) Caste-like formations are present in Non-Hindu religious communities as well. Discuss with examples.

Caste-like formations are present in Non-Hindu religious communities as well, which can be seen through examples like the Muslim community in India. They have a caste hierarchy that includes Ashrafs (upper caste), Ajlafs (middle caste), and Arzals (lower caste). Similarly, the Christian community in India has divisions like Syrian Christians, Latin Christians, and Dalit Christians. The Sikh community also has caste divisions like Jats, Khatris, and Mazhabis. These caste-like formations among non-Hindu religious communities can be attributed to the historical process of conversion, wherein people from different castes adopted new religions but continued to maintain their caste identities and practices. This demonstrates the deep-rooted nature of the caste system in India, transcending the boundaries of religion.

Q.2. Answer the following:

a) What is identity politics? Discuss the main trends in Dalit movements in India.           (20 Marks)

Identity politics refers to the political approach and analysis wherein individuals or groups of people with a particular shared identity, such as race, gender, religion, caste, or sexual orientation, form exclusive alliances and promote their interests. This form of politics is based on the premise that one's social identity has a significant impact on their political interests and experiences.

In India, the Dalit movement is an important example of identity politics. Dalits, previously known as "untouchables" or "scheduled castes," belong to the lowest rung of the Indian caste hierarchy. Historically, they have faced widespread discrimination, exclusion, and violence. The Dalit movement in India encompasses various social, political, and cultural movements led by Dalits to assert their rights and fight against caste-based discrimination.

Main trends in Dalit movements in India:

1. Social Reform Movements: Dalit movements in India have their roots in social reform movements that aimed to challenge the caste system and promote social equality. Some of the prominent leaders of these movements were Jyotirao Phule, B.R. Ambedkar, and Periyar E.V. Ramasamy. They focused on educating Dalits, raising awareness about their rights, and creating a sense of self-respect and dignity among them.

2. Political Mobilization: Over time, the Dalit movement in India has evolved to focus on political mobilization and representation. Dalit political parties and organizations have been formed to ensure their voices are heard in the political arena. Examples include the Republican Party of India, Bahujan Samaj Party, and the Dalit Shoshit Mukti Manch. These parties seek to empower Dalits by advocating for reservations in education, employment, and political representation.

3. Assertion of Dalit Identity: In recent years, the Dalit movement has also focused on asserting their distinct identity and pride in their history and culture. This trend is characterized by the celebration of Dalit icons, literature, and art forms. For instance, the commemoration of Ambedkar Jayanti (the birth anniversary of B.R. Ambedkar) and the publication of Dalit literature are significant aspects of this trend.

4. Dalit Feminism: Recognizing the unique challenges faced by Dalit women, who experience multiple forms of discrimination based on caste and gender, Dalit feminism has emerged as an important trend within the Dalit movement. Dalit women's organizations and activists work to highlight the intersectionality of caste and gender oppression and strive to address issues like sexual violence, domestic violence, and economic empowerment.

5. Globalization of the Dalit Movement: The Dalit movement has also transcended national boundaries and has been successful in drawing international attention to the plight of Dalits in India. Organizations like the International Dalit Solidarity Network and the Human Rights Watch have played a crucial role in highlighting the issue of caste-based discrimination at international forums.

In conclusion, the Dalit movement in India is a significant example of identity politics that has evolved over time to address the multifaceted challenges faced by the Dalit community. Through social reform, political mobilization, assertion of identity, and globalization, the movement has made significant strides in empowering Dalits and challenging the caste-based discrimination that has plagued Indian society for centuries.

b) Is Indian society moving from "Hierarchy" towards "differentiation"? Illustrate your answer with suitable examples.           (20 Marks)

Indian society has indeed been witnessing a gradual shift from a rigid hierarchical structure towards a more differentiated one. This shift can be attributed to various socio-economic and political factors such as urbanization, globalization, economic liberalization, and the spread of education and awareness.

Let's analyze this shift with suitable examples:

1. Caste System: The caste system has been one of the most rigid and hierarchical elements of Indian society. However, with the spread of education, awareness, and inter-caste marriages, the rigidity of the caste system has been weakening. Constitutional provisions like reservation for Scheduled Castes (SCs), Scheduled Tribes (STs), and Other Backward Classes (OBCs) in education and employment have also played a significant role in reducing caste-based inequalities. Nonetheless, the caste system still persists in many parts of the country, but the trend towards differentiation is visible.

2. Gender Dynamics: Traditionally, Indian society has been patriarchal, with women having limited rights and opportunities. However, with the rise in women's education and their participation in the workforce, gender dynamics are changing, leading to a more egalitarian society. Women are now entering fields that were once considered male-dominated, and many are holding leadership positions in business, politics, and other sectors. The improvement in the legal framework and the growing awareness of gender rights have also contributed to this change.

3. Urbanization: Rapid urbanization in India has led to a mixing of different cultures, traditions, and people from diverse backgrounds. This has resulted in the dilution of regional, linguistic, and caste-based identities. The anonymity provided by urban centers allows individuals to break away from the traditional social norms and forge new relationships based on shared interests and values. This has resulted in a more differentiated and pluralistic society.

4. Economic Liberalization: The economic liberalization policies that began in the early 1990s have opened up the Indian economy to global competition and opportunities. This has led to an increase in job opportunities, entrepreneurship, and a growing middle class. The traditional hierarchical occupations and social divisions based on caste and class have weakened due to the emergence of new professions and a market-driven economy.

5. Globalization: The increasing integration of India with the global economy has exposed Indian society to new ideas, values, and lifestyles. The growing influence of social media and the internet has further accelerated the exposure to different cultures and ideas. This has led to the emergence of a more diverse, open-minded, and differentiated society.

In conclusion, Indian society is indeed moving from hierarchy towards differentiation. However, it is essential to note that the transition is slow and uneven, with rural areas and marginalized sections of the society still facing the brunt of traditional hierarchical structures. The challenge lies in ensuring that the benefits of socio-economic and political changes reach all sections of society to create a truly differentiated and egalitarian India.

c) Discuss the salient features of 'new middle class' in India.           (10 Marks)

The 'new middle class' in India refers to the socio-economic group that emerged in the post-liberalization era of the 1990s. This group has benefitted from the economic liberalization, globalization, and rapid growth of the Indian economy. The new middle class is marked by certain salient features that set it apart from the traditional middle class in India. Some of these features are:

1. Higher Income Levels: The new middle class has benefited from the increased job opportunities in the private sector, resulting in higher income levels. This group is primarily employed in sectors such as IT, finance, telecom, and retail, which have experienced rapid growth in the post-liberalization era.

2. Urban-centric: The new middle class is predominantly urban and has a significant presence in metropolitan cities such as Delhi, Mumbai, Bangalore, Hyderabad, and Chennai. These cities have become the hub of economic activity in the country, providing ample job opportunities and improved living standards.

3. Aspirational: The new middle class is highly aspirational, with a strong desire for upward social and economic mobility. They are characterized by their aspirations for a better quality of life, better education for their children, and ownership of consumer durables such as cars, smartphones, and other electronics.

4. Consumerism: The new middle class is characterized by high levels of consumerism. They have higher disposable incomes and are willing to spend on luxury goods and services. This has led to the growth of various industries such as retail, hospitality, and tourism.

5. Education and Skills: The new middle class is highly educated, often holding degrees from prestigious institutions in India and abroad. They value education and invest heavily in their children's education as a means of securing a better future. They also possess specialized skills in various sectors, making them valuable assets to the Indian economy.

6. Global Outlook: The new middle class is well-traveled and has a global outlook. They are exposed to international ideas, cultures, and practices through their education, work, and travel experiences. This has led to the adoption of global trends and values, making them more open to change and new ideas.

7. Social Media Savvy: The new middle class is technologically adept and actively uses social media platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram. They use these platforms to express their opinions, connect with friends and family, and to stay updated on the latest trends and news.

8. Identity Politics: The new middle class is more conscious of their identities, be it regional, linguistic, or religious. They are more assertive in expressing and defending their identities, leading to the rise of identity politics in India.

9. Environmental Awareness: The new middle class is more environmentally conscious and aware of the need for sustainable development. They are increasingly participating in environmental conservation initiatives and adopting eco-friendly practices in their daily lives.

In conclusion, the new middle class in India is a diverse and dynamic socio-economic group that has emerged as a result of the economic liberalization and globalization. They have higher incomes, better education, and a global outlook, which sets them apart from the traditional middle class. Their aspirations and consumerism have driven the growth of various industries in the country and shaped the socio-political landscape of India.

Q.3. Answer the following:

a) Discuss in detail the major contribution of Prof. Yogendra Singh in theorizing India's modernization.           (20 Marks)

Prof. Yogendra Singh is a renowned Indian sociologist known for his significant contributions to the understanding and theorizing of India's modernization process. His works have significantly influenced the academic discourse on Indian society, culture, and development. Prof. Singh's major contributions can be outlined under the following themes:

1. Theoretical Framework for India's Modernization: Prof. Singh provided a comprehensive framework to study the process of modernization in India. He identified four major aspects of India's modernization, namely, technological, economic, political, and social. According to him, these four dimensions are interdependent, and their interaction shapes the trajectory of modernization in India. He argued that the process of modernization in India is unique and cannot be understood by simply applying western models of development.

2. Tradition and Modernity in Indian Society: Prof. Singh argued that Indian society is characterized by the coexistence of tradition and modernity. He highlighted that the process of modernization in India is not linear, and the traditional elements play a significant role in shaping the contours of modernity. He emphasized that the continuity and change in Indian society are dialectical processes, and the synthesis of tradition and modernity is essential for understanding the complexities of Indian society.
For example, the caste system, which is a traditional institution, continues to influence social, economic, and political relations in contemporary India. Similarly, the rise of regional political parties based on caste and ethnicity reflects the persistence of traditional identities in the modern political landscape.

3. Cultural Pluralism and Identity: Prof. Singh has extensively studied the issue of cultural pluralism in the Indian context. He argued that the Indian society is characterized by multiple layers of cultural identities, which coexist and interact with each other. He emphasized the need to understand the cultural diversity of Indian society to comprehend the process of modernization.
For example, the linguistic diversity of India, with over 19,500 languages or dialects, reflects the cultural pluralism of Indian society. The interaction between different linguistic groups has led to the development of a distinct cultural heritage in different regions of India.

4. Social Change and Development: Prof. Yogendra Singh's work has contributed significantly to the understanding of social change and development in India. He argued that the process of modernization and development in India is marked by social tensions and conflicts, as different social groups negotiate their positions in the rapidly changing social landscape.
For example, the agrarian crisis and farmer's protests in India reflect the tensions between the traditional agrarian economy and the modern market-oriented economic system. Similarly, the rise of social movements and civil society organizations in India is indicative of the social conflicts that arise due to the process of modernization and development.

In conclusion, Prof. Yogendra Singh's theoretical contributions have been instrumental in understanding the process of modernization in India. His emphasis on the dialectical relationship between tradition and modernity, the role of cultural pluralism, and the social tensions arising due to modernization has enriched the academic discourse on Indian society and development. His work continues to inform and inspire scholars and policymakers in their efforts to navigate the complexities of India's modernization process.

b) Examine the factors responsible for the rural unrest in contemporary India.           (20 Marks)

Several factors contribute to the rural unrest in contemporary India. These factors are often interconnected and can be broadly categorized into social, economic, political, and environmental factors. The main factors responsible for rural unrest in India include:

1. Land Reforms and Land Acquisition: Land reforms in India have been slow and inadequate, leading to unequal distribution of land among the rural population. Moreover, land acquisition policies for industrial and infrastructure projects have often displaced farmers from their land without providing adequate compensation, leading to protests and unrest.
Example: The Singur land acquisition issue in West Bengal where farmers protested against the acquisition of their fertile agricultural land for setting up a car manufacturing plant.

2. Agricultural Distress: Indian agriculture is plagued by low productivity, dependence on monsoons, inadequate irrigation facilities, fragmented landholdings, and lack of access to institutional credit. This has led to widespread agrarian distress, pushing farmers into debt and poverty. Farmer suicides are a grim manifestation of this distress.
Example: The Marathwada region in Maharashtra has witnessed a large number of farmer suicides due to drought and mounting debt.

3. Unemployment and Migration: The lack of employment opportunities in rural areas has led to large-scale migration to urban areas, leading to overcrowding in cities and a strain on urban resources. The rural areas, on the other hand, suffer from a lack of skilled labor, perpetuating the cycle of poverty and underdevelopment.
Example: The seasonal migration of laborers from Bihar and Uttar Pradesh to other parts of India in search of work.

4. Caste and Social Discrimination: Caste-based discrimination and violence continue to be a major issue in rural India, leading to social unrest and tensions between different communities. The reservation policies in education and employment, while aimed at uplifting the socially disadvantaged sections, have also led to resentment among other communities.
Example: The Patidar agitation in Gujarat demanding reservation in education and government jobs.

5. Political Factors: The lack of political representation and participation of marginalized sections of society in rural India has led to feelings of alienation and discontent. Moreover, the lack of effective governance and corruption in local bodies has led to widespread disillusionment with the political system.
Example: The Naxalite movement in the tribal-dominated regions of Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, and Odisha, which is a manifestation of the discontent with the existing political and administrative system.

6. Environmental Degradation: Deforestation, over-extraction of groundwater, and pollution from industries and agriculture have led to the degradation of the environment in rural areas. This has adversely affected the livelihoods of farmers, fishermen, and other rural communities, leading to protests and unrest.
Example: The Chipko movement in Uttarakhand, where villagers protested against large-scale deforestation in the region.

In conclusion, the rural unrest in contemporary India is a complex phenomenon with multiple factors contributing to it. Addressing these issues requires a multi-pronged approach, including effective implementation of land reforms, improving agricultural productivity, providing better employment opportunities, addressing social and political grievances of the marginalized sections, and ensuring sustainable development of rural areas.

c) Discuss the changing dimensions of family structure in urban India.           (10 Marks)

Over the years, the family structure in urban India has undergone significant changes due to various socio-economic and cultural factors. The traditional joint family system, which was the backbone of Indian society, has gradually been replaced by nuclear families. The following points highlight the changing dimensions of family structure in urban India:

1. Shift from Joint to Nuclear Families: The joint family system, which consisted of parents, their children, and the children's spouses and offspring living under one roof, is now being replaced by nuclear families. This shift is mainly attributed to the increased migration of people from rural to urban areas for better opportunities and a higher standard of living. As people move to cities, they tend to live in smaller housing units, which makes it difficult for joint families to stay together.

2. Influence of Western Culture: The exposure to Western culture and values has played a significant role in bringing about changes to the family structure in urban India. The increased importance given to individualism, privacy, and personal freedom in the Western world has influenced many urban Indians to adopt a nuclear family system where they can enjoy more personal space and freedom.

3. Growth of Women's Education and Employment: The rise in women's education and employment has also contributed to the changing family structure in urban India. As more women are becoming financially independent, they are less likely to depend on their extended families for support. This has led to an increase in nuclear families, where both the husband and the wife work and share household responsibilities.

4. Late Marriages and Declining Fertility Rates: In urban India, the trend of late marriages and declining fertility rates has also contributed to the change in family structure. With the focus on career and financial stability, many couples are choosing to marry late and have fewer children. This has led to a decrease in the number of members in a family, resulting in the growth of nuclear families.

5. Increased Life Expectancy: The increase in life expectancy has also affected the family structure in urban India. As people live longer, there are now more generations within a family. This sometimes leads to conflicts and misunderstandings between different generations, which in turn may contribute to the breaking up of joint families into nuclear ones.

6. Breakdown of Social Support Systems: In earlier times, the joint family system provided a strong social support system for its members. However, with the growth of nuclear families, this support system has weakened, leading to an increase in cases of loneliness and depression, especially among the elderly.

In conclusion, the family structure in urban India has undergone significant changes due to various socio-economic and cultural factors. The traditional joint family system has been replaced by nuclear families, which has led to several implications, both positive and negative. While the nuclear family system provides more personal freedom and privacy, it has also led to the breakdown of social support systems and increased cases of loneliness and depression among the elderly. As urban India continues to evolve, it remains to be seen how the family structure will further change and adapt to the dynamic socio-economic landscape.

Q.4. Answer the following:

a) What are the sociological reasons and implication of “reverse migration" during the recent pandemic in India?           (20 Marks)

Reverse migration, also known as "return migration," refers to the movement of people from urban to rural areas, particularly in the context of the recent COVID-19 pandemic in India. This phenomenon has significant sociological reasons and implications, which can be analyzed through various dimensions:

1. Loss of employment and livelihood: The sudden nationwide lockdown due to the pandemic led to the closure of businesses and industries, resulting in massive job losses for migrant workers. Many daily wage earners struggled to make ends meet, prompting them to return to their native villages in search of alternative means of livelihood. For instance, the shutting down of textile industries in Tirupur, Tamil Nadu, forced thousands of workers from Uttar Pradesh and Bihar to return to their native places.
2. Inadequate housing and living conditions: The living conditions in urban slums and informal settlements, where a large number of migrant workers reside, are often overcrowded and lack proper sanitation facilities. The fear of contracting the virus and the need for social distancing prompted many to move back to their rural homes, which offered better living conditions and more space.
3. Social security networks: Migrant workers typically have stronger social and familial ties in their rural hometowns. These networks provide emotional and financial support, especially during a crisis. The uncertainty of the urban environment and the lack of support systems in cities led to an increased dependence on rural social networks.
4. Government schemes and programs: The Indian government introduced various schemes to support rural livelihoods during the pandemic, such as the expanded Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) and the Pradhan Mantri Garib Kalyan Yojana. These schemes provided an incentive for migrant workers to return to their villages to access employment opportunities and financial assistance.

The implications of reverse migration during the pandemic are multifaceted and include:

1. Impact on urban economies: The sudden exodus of migrant workers resulted in a labor shortage in urban centers, adversely affecting industries such as construction, manufacturing, and services. This could potentially slow down the pace of urban economic growth.
2. Rural revitalization: The influx of returning migrants has brought new skills and experiences to rural areas, which could potentially contribute to rural development and economic diversification. The increased demand for work under MGNREGA has led to the creation of productive assets, such as water conservation structures and rural infrastructure.
3. Strain on rural resources: The reverse migration has put pressure on rural resources, including food, water, and healthcare facilities. This could exacerbate existing disparities in access to basic services and contribute to increased rural poverty.
4. Public health challenges: The movement of people from urban hotspots of COVID-19 to rural areas raised concerns about the spread of the virus in regions with limited healthcare infrastructure. This necessitated the implementation of strict quarantine measures and the expansion of rural healthcare facilities to prevent a public health crisis.

In conclusion, reverse migration during the COVID-19 pandemic in India has been driven by various sociological factors and has significant implications for both urban and rural geographies. Addressing the challenges posed by this phenomenon will require a comprehensive approach by policymakers, focusing on improving livelihood opportunities, social security measures, and public health infrastructure across rural and urban areas.

b) Discuss the main features of the debate between G. S. Ghurye and V. Elwin on tribal development.           (20 Marks)

G. S. Ghurye and V. Elwin were two prominent Indian sociologists who had differing views on the approach to tribal development in India. While Ghurye believed in the assimilation of tribes into the mainstream society, Elwin advocated for the preservation of their unique cultural identities. The main features of their debate can be summarized as follows:

1. Assimilation vs. Isolation: Ghurye believed that tribes should be assimilated into the mainstream society, as he viewed them as a part of the larger Hindu social order. He argued that tribal culture was essentially an extension of Hindu culture and that the tribal way of life was primitive and backward. Thus, he advocated for their integration with the mainstream society. On the other hand, Elwin believed that tribes possessed a distinctive culture, and their isolation would help preserve their unique cultural identity. He argued that tribes should be allowed to develop according to their own pace and in their own way.

2. Cultural Integration vs. Cultural Relativism: Ghurye believed in cultural integration, stating that tribes should be brought into the fold of mainstream society to ensure their progress and development. He felt that the unique cultural practices of tribes were a hindrance to their development. Elwin, on the other hand, was a cultural relativist who believed that each culture had its own value and should be respected. He argued that tribes should be allowed to maintain their unique cultural practices and traditions, stressing that their culture was not inferior to the mainstream culture.

3. Education and Development: Ghurye believed that education was a crucial tool for the assimilation of tribes into the mainstream society. He argued that education would help tribes to shed their primitive beliefs and practices and adopt modern values and practices. Elwin, however, believed that education should be tailored to the needs of the tribes, respecting their culture and traditions. He argued that imposing mainstream education on tribes could lead to the erosion of their cultural identity.

4. Tribal Autonomy: Ghurye argued that tribes should be integrated with the mainstream society, and their administration should be under the same governance structure as the rest of the country. In contrast, Elwin advocated for tribal autonomy, arguing that tribes should be allowed to govern themselves to preserve their unique cultural identity. He believed that self-governance would enable tribes to maintain their traditional practices and prevent their exploitation by the mainstream society.

5. Examples: The debate between Ghurye and Elwin can be seen in the context of the development policies adopted by the Indian government towards tribal communities. Ghurye's approach is reflected in the policies of assimilation and integration, such as the reservation system, which aims to bring tribes into the mainstream society by providing them with access to education and employment opportunities. On the other hand, Elwin's approach can be seen in the establishment of tribal regions or 'scheduled areas' under the Fifth Schedule of the Indian Constitution, which provides for the administration and control of these areas by the tribes themselves.

In conclusion, the debate between G. S. Ghurye and V. Elwin on tribal development highlights the differing perspectives on the integration and preservation of tribal communities in India. While Ghurye's approach focused on assimilation and cultural integration, Elwin advocated for the preservation of tribal culture and autonomy. The Indian government has adopted a mix of these approaches in its policies towards tribal development, trying to balance the need for integration with the preservation of cultural identity.

c) What are the various forms of untouchability in India? Critically examine.           (10 Marks)

Untouchability refers to the social practice of discrimination and exclusion of certain communities based on caste and birth, particularly in India. Historically, it has been a deeply entrenched system in Hindu society, where individuals belonging to the lowest caste or "Dalits" (formerly known as "untouchables") were subjected to numerous forms of discrimination and segregation. Although untouchability was legally abolished in India in 1950, it continues to exist in various forms. 

Some of these forms are as follows:
1. Social Segregation: In many parts of India, particularly rural areas, residential segregation is still practiced. Dalit families are often forced to live in separate settlements or ghettos on the outskirts of villages. This spatial segregation extends to other public spaces like temples, schools, and water sources, where Dalits may be denied access or allowed entry only during specific times.
2. Occupational Discrimination: Traditional occupations associated with the Dalit caste are often degrading and menial in nature, such as scavenging, manual scavenging, and leatherwork. Dalits often face discrimination in the job market and are forced to continue working in these traditional occupations. This further perpetuates the caste-based economic disparities and social stigma.
3. Denial of Access to Public Services: Dalits often face discrimination in accessing essential public services like healthcare, education, and police assistance. There have been numerous reports of Dalit children facing discrimination in schools, including being made to sit separately, being denied mid-day meals, and facing verbal and physical abuse by teachers and fellow students.
4. Violence and Atrocities: Dalits are often subjected to various forms of violence and atrocities, such as physical assault, sexual violence, social boycott, and economic exploitation. These acts of violence are often perpetrated with impunity, as the perpetrators belong to the upper castes and enjoy the support of local power structures.
5. Forced Labor and Bonded Labor: Many Dalit families are trapped in debt bondage and forced labor, working for landlords and moneylenders. Despite the existence of laws against bonded labor, the practice continues in various parts of India due to lack of proper implementation and social awareness.
6. Caste-based Prohibition of Marriage: Inter-caste marriages, particularly those involving Dalits, are often met with severe opposition from the upper castes. Such marriages can lead to violence and even "honor killings" in some cases.

In conclusion, untouchability in India exists in various forms, despite being legally abolished. It is crucial to address the root causes of untouchability, which include deeply ingrained social prejudices, lack of education, and economic disparities. The government, civil society, and individuals need to work together to promote social harmony, ensure equal opportunities for all, and end the practice of untouchability in all its forms.