UPSC Mains Answer PYQ 2021: Sociology Paper 2 (Section- B) | Sociology Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Q.5. Write short answers, with a sociological perspective, of the following questions in about 150 words each:         (10 x 5 = 50 Marks)

a) Analyze the idea of developmental planning in India.

Developmental planning in India refers to the systematic and organized approach taken by the government to achieve economic growth, social welfare, and sustainable development. The Five-Year Plans, initiated in 1951, have been the cornerstone of India's developmental planning. These plans aimed at improving various aspects of the economy, such as agriculture, industry, education, and health. Sociologically, developmental planning in India has played a crucial role in reducing poverty, enhancing social mobility, and addressing regional disparities. However, it has also faced criticism for being too centralized and top-down in approach, not adequately considering the diverse needs of different social groups and regions.

b) Comment on the role of co-operatives in rural development.

Co-operatives play a significant role in rural development as they facilitate social and economic empowerment of rural communities. They enable small farmers, artisans, and laborers to pool their resources, access credit, and market their products collectively. This leads to an improvement in their bargaining power, income, and living standards. Additionally, co-operatives promote democratic decision-making, thereby fostering social cohesion and a sense of community ownership. Through their focus on local needs and resources, co-operatives also contribute to sustainable development and environmental conservation. However, co-operatives in India have faced challenges such as mismanagement, corruption, and political interference, which hinder their effectiveness in rural development.

c) Urban slums are sites of social exclusion - explain.

Urban slums are sites of social exclusion as they are characterized by inadequate housing, lack of basic amenities, and limited access to education, healthcare, and employment opportunities. Slum dwellers often belong to marginalized social groups such as migrants, minorities, and the economically disadvantaged. They face numerous challenges, including discrimination, stigmatization, and exploitation, which further perpetuate their social exclusion. The concentration of poverty and social exclusion in slums also contributes to the formation of social networks and subcultures that reinforce negative stereotypes and social exclusion. Therefore, addressing the issue of urban slums is critical to promoting social inclusion and reducing inequalities in urban areas.

d) Does regionalism essentially lead to decentralization of power? Substantiate your answer with relevant examples.

Regionalism refers to the assertion of distinct regional identities, often based on linguistic, cultural, or historical factors. It can potentially lead to decentralization of power by promoting greater autonomy and decision-making authority for regional governments. This can help address local needs and aspirations more effectively, enhancing the overall development and social cohesion. Examples from India, such as the formation of linguistic states and the granting of special autonomy provisions to certain regions (e.g., Jammu and Kashmir), illustrate how regionalism has contributed to decentralization. However, regionalism can also be divisive and lead to conflicts between different regions or social groups, thereby undermining the decentralization process.

e) Discuss the role of technology in agrarian change in India.

Technology has played a significant role in agrarian change in India, particularly through the Green Revolution, which introduced high-yielding varieties of crops, chemical fertilizers, and modern irrigation techniques. This led to a significant increase in agricultural productivity and food security, transforming India from a food-deficit to a food-surplus nation. However, the Green Revolution also had several sociological implications. It benefited large farmers more than small farmers, leading to increased disparities in rural wealth and land ownership. The excessive use of chemical inputs and groundwater has resulted in environmental degradation and depletion of natural resources. Additionally, the focus on a few high-yielding varieties has led to the loss of traditional knowledge and crop diversity. Thus, while technology has contributed to agrarian change in India, it has also generated new social and environmental challenges.

Q.6. Answer the following:

a) Explain the sociological significance of the New Education Policy and its thrust on vocationalization and skill development.           (20 Marks)

The New Education Policy (NEP) aims to bring about a transformation in India's education system by focusing on vocationalization and skill development. This policy has several sociological implications.

1. Addressing the skill gap: The NEP's emphasis on vocationalization and skill development aims to bridge the gap between the demand for skilled workers and the supply of skilled professionals. By providing vocational training and skill development programs, the policy aims to empower individuals with the necessary skills to excel in various industries. This will not only increase productivity and efficiency but also provide better employment opportunities for the youth, thereby reducing the unemployment rate and contributing to the overall economic growth of the country.

2. Reducing social inequality: The NEP seeks to promote equitable access to quality education for students from all socio-economic backgrounds. By offering vocational and skill development courses, the policy aims to provide marginalized and economically disadvantaged sections of society with an opportunity to acquire relevant skills and compete in the job market. This will help to reduce social inequalities and promote social mobility.

3. Promoting gender equality: The NEP emphasizes gender equality by providing equal opportunities for girls and boys to pursue vocational and skill development courses. By encouraging girls to participate in these courses, the policy aims to break gender stereotypes and empower women with the necessary skills to excel in various industries. This will not only promote gender equality but also contribute to the overall development of the country.

4. Encouraging entrepreneurship and innovation: The NEP's focus on vocationalization and skill development aims to foster an environment where individuals are encouraged to explore their potential and pursue innovative ideas. By providing the necessary skills and training, the policy aims to create a pool of talented individuals who can contribute to the growth of the country through entrepreneurship and innovation.

5. Enhancing regional development: The NEP recognizes the importance of regional diversity and aims to provide vocational and skill development courses that are relevant to the local context. By offering region-specific courses, the policy aims to promote regional development and reduce inter-regional disparities in terms of education and employment opportunities.

6. Fostering global competitiveness: With the increasing emphasis on globalization, the NEP's focus on vocationalization and skill development aims to prepare individuals to compete in the global market. By equipping students with the necessary skills, the policy aims to create a globally competitive workforce that can contribute to India's growth on the international stage.

In conclusion, the New Education Policy's thrust on vocationalization and skill development has several sociological implications, including addressing skill gaps, reducing social and gender inequalities, promoting entrepreneurship and innovation, enhancing regional development, and fostering global competitiveness. By implementing this policy effectively, India can achieve significant progress in its socio-economic development and emerge as a global leader in education and skill development.

b) Is 'ageing an emerging issue in Indian society? Discuss the major problems of the old age people in India.           (20 Marks)

Ageing is indeed an emerging issue in Indian society. With advancements in healthcare and the gradual increase in life expectancy, the elderly population in India is growing rapidly. According to the 2011 Census, the population of senior citizens (60 years and above) is about 104 million, comprising 8.6% of the total population. By 2050, this number is expected to rise to 324 million, accounting for 20% of the total population.

The major problems faced by the elderly population in India are as follows:

1. Economic insecurity: Many elderly people in India lack proper financial support, and with the decline in the joint family system, they are often left to fend for themselves. This is particularly evident in the case of those who do not have pensions, social security, or any other form of income. The lack of employment opportunities for senior citizens and the absence of any form of social security system exacerbate this issue.

2. Health problems: As people age, they become susceptible to various health issues and chronic diseases like diabetes, hypertension, arthritis, and heart ailments. The lack of adequate healthcare facilities, particularly in rural areas, and the high cost of medical care make it difficult for the elderly to access proper healthcare services.

3. Social isolation: The breakdown of the joint family system has led to a decline in social interaction and support for the elderly. Loneliness and depression are common among the elderly as they feel isolated and neglected by their families.

4. Lack of suitable housing: The elderly often require special housing facilities that cater to their needs, such as easy accessibility, safety, and proximity to healthcare services. However, in India, there is a lack of such housing options, forcing the elderly to live in unsuitable conditions.

5. Abuse and exploitation: Elder abuse, both physical and emotional, is a growing problem in India. Many elderly people are subjected to violence, neglect, and financial exploitation by their family members or caregivers. The lack of strong legal mechanisms to protect the elderly from abuse further aggravates the issue.

6. Inadequate policy measures: The government policies and schemes for the elderly in India are often inadequate and poorly implemented. There is a need for more comprehensive and focused policies that address the various issues faced by the elderly population.

Examples of some initiatives taken by the government to address the problems faced by the elderly population in India include:

1. Indira Gandhi National Old Age Pension Scheme (IGNOAPS): The scheme provides a monthly pension to elderly people below the poverty line.

2. Rashtriya Vayoshri Yojana: This scheme aims to provide physical aids and assistive devices to senior citizens belonging to the BPL category.

3. National Programme for Health Care of the Elderly (NPHCE): The program aims to provide preventive, curative, and rehabilitative services to the elderly through primary healthcare facilities.

4. Maintenance and Welfare of Parents and Senior Citizens Act, 2007: This act provides legal provisions for the maintenance and welfare of parents and senior citizens.

In conclusion, ageing is indeed an emerging issue in Indian society, and there is an urgent need for comprehensive policies and effective implementation to address the various problems faced by the elderly population in India. This includes providing financial security, healthcare facilities, suitable housing options, and legal protection against abuse and exploitation.

c) Underline the socio-cultural factors) responsible for India's skewed sex-ratio.           (10 Marks)

The socio-cultural factors responsible for India's skewed sex-ratio are deeply rooted in the country's traditional beliefs, values, and practices. These factors contribute to the preference for male children and discrimination against female children, leading to a skewed sex ratio. 

Some of the significant socio-cultural factors are:

1. Patriarchal Society: The Indian society is predominantly patriarchal, where men are considered the primary authority figures and are expected to provide for the family. This leads to a preference for male children, as they are viewed as potential breadwinners and heirs to the family property.

2. Son Preference: In India, sons are often considered essential for various socio-cultural reasons, such as carrying forward the family name, performing religious rituals, and providing support to parents in old age. This preference for sons has resulted in sex-selective practices, such as female foeticide and infanticide.

3. Dowry System: The tradition of dowry, where the bride's family provides gifts and money to the groom's family, is still prevalent in many parts of India. This practice places a significant financial burden on the bride's family, further contributing to the preference for male children.

4. Discrimination against Female Children: Discrimination against female children is evident in various aspects of Indian society, such as education, healthcare, and nutrition. In many households, boys receive better access to education, healthcare, and nutritious food compared to girls. This discrimination can lead to higher mortality rates among female children, contributing to the skewed sex ratio.

5. Lack of Awareness and Education: The lack of awareness and education among some sections of Indian society perpetuates traditional beliefs and practices that contribute to the skewed sex ratio. For example, many people still believe that having a male child is essential for their social and economic well-being.

Examples:
(a) In Haryana, one of the Indian states with the most skewed sex ratio, the preference for sons has led to the practice of female foeticide and infanticide. This has resulted in a sex ratio of 877 females for every 1,000 males, according to the 2011 Census.
(b) In Rajasthan, another state with a skewed sex ratio, the traditional practice of child marriage contributes to the preference for male children. Child brides are often married off before they reach the legal age of 18, with little access to education and healthcare, further contributing to the skewed sex ratio in the state.
(c) The government of India has launched various schemes and initiatives to address the issue of the skewed sex ratio, such as 'Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao' (Save the Daughter, Educate the Daughter), which aims to promote gender equality and empower girls through education. This campaign has led to increased awareness and a gradual improvement in the sex ratio in some parts of the country.

Q.7. Answer the following:

a) The problem of displacement is inherent in the idea of development. Analyze the statement critically.           (20 Marks)

The statement suggests that displacement is an inevitable consequence of development. This can be critically analyzed by examining the various aspects of development and their impact on displacement, as well as the role of policies and planning in reducing or exacerbating displacement issues. This analysis can be supported through the use of examples.

1. Economic Development: Economic development, through rapid industrialization and urbanization, often results in large-scale displacement of people. Land acquisition for setting up industries, infrastructure projects, and urban expansion necessitates the relocation of people who previously depended on that land for their livelihood. For example, the construction of the Sardar Sarovar Dam in Gujarat led to the displacement of thousands of people living in the Narmada Valley.

2. Social Development: Development interventions aimed at uplifting marginalized communities may also result in displacement. For instance, slum clearance and redevelopment projects often displace people without providing adequate alternatives, leading to further marginalization. The case of Dharavi in Mumbai, where plans for redevelopment have been mired in controversy due to concerns over the displacement of residents, is an example of this.

3. Environmental Development: Development initiatives aimed at conserving the environment and natural resources can also lead to displacement. The creation of national parks and protected areas, for example, may result in the eviction of indigenous people and forest-dependent communities. The displacement of Baiga tribe from Kanha National Park in Madhya Pradesh due to the creation of tiger reserves is an example of this.

4. Infrastructure Development: Large-scale infrastructure projects such as roads, railways, and airports often require substantial land acquisition, leading to the displacement of people. The construction of the Yamuna Expressway in Uttar Pradesh, for example, led to the displacement of thousands of farmers whose lands were acquired for the project.

While displacement is often an unintended consequence of development, it is essential to consider the role of policies and planning in mitigating or exacerbating the issue. Inclusive development policies that prioritize the needs and rights of affected communities can minimize displacement and ensure that the benefits of development are equitably shared. For example, the Right to Fair Compensation and Transparency in Land Acquisition, Rehabilitation, and Resettlement Act, 2013, in India, seeks to address the issue of displacement by providing compensation and rehabilitation to affected people.

Furthermore, a participatory approach to development planning that involves the people who are likely to be affected by development projects can help identify alternative solutions that minimize displacement. For example, the Narmada Bachao Andolan, a social movement led by Medha Patkar, advocated for a more participatory and people-centric approach to dam building in the Narmada Valley.

In conclusion, the problem of displacement is indeed inherent in the idea of development, as development often necessitates the relocation of people and communities. However, the extent to which displacement occurs and the severity of its impacts can be influenced by the policies and planning processes that guide development. By adopting inclusive, participatory, and equitable approaches to development, it is possible to minimize displacement and ensure that the benefits of development are shared by all.

b) Rising 'ethnocentricism' is leading to conflict in our society. Assess this statement with appropriate reasons.           (20 Marks)

Ethnocentrism refers to the belief in the inherent superiority of one's own ethnic group or culture. It is a tendency to view other cultures through the lens of one's own culture, often leading to negative judgments about other groups. In recent years, there has been a rise in ethnocentric sentiments in various parts of the world, which has led to increased social, political, and economic conflicts.

The statement that rising ethnocentrism is leading to conflict in society can be assessed from various perspectives:

1. Social Conflicts: One of the most visible impacts of ethnocentrism is the increasing social conflicts among different ethnic groups. This is evident in the increasing frequency of hate crimes, violence, and discrimination against minority communities across the globe. In India, for instance, there have been reported incidents of violence against religious minorities and lower castes, fueled by ethnocentric beliefs. Similarly, in the United States, there has been a rise in hate crimes against Asian Americans and African Americans, which can be attributed to ethnocentric attitudes.

2. Political Conflicts: Ethnocentricism often leads to the rise of nationalist and far-right political movements, which can further exacerbate social and political conflicts. For example, the Brexit referendum in the United Kingdom was largely driven by ethnocentric sentiments, leading to a significant divide in the country. In India, the rise of the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) and its majoritarian policies have led to increased tensions between different ethnic and religious groups.

3. Economic Conflicts: Ethnocentrism can also lead to economic conflicts as different ethnic groups compete for scarce resources, employment opportunities, and access to public services. This can result in the marginalization of minority communities and perpetuate poverty and inequality. For example, in South Africa, the legacy of apartheid has left deep-seated economic disparities between different ethnic groups, which continue to be a source of conflict.

4. International Conflicts: Ethnocentricism can lead to international conflicts, as countries with strong ethnocentric beliefs may pursue aggressive foreign policies and engage in conflicts with other countries. For instance, the increasing tensions between China and its neighbors in the South China Sea can be partly attributed to the former's ethnocentric worldview.

Examples of ethnocentrism leading to conflicts:
(a) The Rohingya crisis in Myanmar, where the Buddhist-majority government has been accused of ethnic cleansing and genocide against the Rohingya Muslim minority, is an example of ethnocentrism leading to extreme violence and conflict.
(b) The Israeli-Palestinian conflict can also be seen as an ethnocentric conflict, as both sides view their ethnic and religious identity as superior and non-negotiable.
(c) In Europe, the rise of far-right political parties and anti-immigrant sentiments has led to increased xenophobia and discrimination against minority ethnic groups, such as the Roma and Muslim communities.

In conclusion, the rise of ethnocentricism has indeed led to increased conflicts in society, both within and between countries. To address this issue, it is essential to promote intercultural dialogue, education, and understanding to foster greater empathy and tolerance among different ethnic groups. Additionally, governments and international organizations must work together to address the root causes of ethnocentrism, such as poverty, inequality, and social exclusion, to create a more harmonious and inclusive society.

c) Is social democracy a precondition for political democracy? Comment.           (10 Marks)

Social democracy and political democracy are distinct concepts, but they are interconnected in many ways. Social democracy refers to a political and economic system that aims to achieve social justice, equality, and welfare through democratic means, often by implementing progressive policies and redistributing wealth. On the other hand, political democracy refers to a system of government in which power is vested in the people, who rule either directly or through freely elected representatives.

While social democracy is not a strict precondition for political democracy, it can be argued that the presence of social democracy can strengthen and support a political democracy. Conversely, the absence of social democracy can lead to challenges in sustaining a political democracy. Here are a few ways in which social democracy influences political democracy:

1. Reducing inequalities: Social democracy aims to reduce economic and social inequalities by ensuring access to basic services, such as education, healthcare, and social security, for all citizens. This can lead to a more inclusive political democracy, as citizens from diverse backgrounds are better equipped to engage in political processes and voice their concerns.
For example, the Nordic countries, such as Sweden, Norway, and Denmark, are known for their strong social democratic policies, which have led to low levels of inequality and high levels of political engagement among citizens.

2. Fostering social cohesion: Social democracy promotes social cohesion by addressing the needs of various social groups and fostering a sense of solidarity among citizens. This can create a stable foundation for political democracy, as citizens are more likely to feel invested in the democratic process and trust in democratic institutions.
For instance, in the post-World War II era, many European countries adopted social democratic policies to rebuild their societies and foster social cohesion, which contributed to the establishment and strengthening of their political democracies.

3. Promoting political participation: By addressing social and economic issues that affect citizens, social democracy can encourage citizens to participate in political processes, such as voting, political debates, and civic engagement, as they feel that their concerns are being taken into account.
For example, in countries like Germany and the Netherlands, the presence of strong social democratic parties has led to high levels of political participation among citizens, contributing to the vibrancy of their political democracies.

However, it is essential to note that political democracy can still exist without social democracy, as seen in countries like the United States and India, where political democracy prevails despite significant social and economic inequalities. In such cases, the absence of social democracy can lead to challenges in sustaining political democracy, as marginalized groups may feel excluded from political processes, and social unrest may undermine democratic institutions.

In conclusion, while social democracy is not a strict precondition for political democracy, it can play a crucial role in strengthening and supporting political democracy by promoting inclusivity, social cohesion, and political participation. However, the absence of social democracy does not necessarily preclude the existence of political democracy, but it can present challenges and limitations to its sustainability and effectiveness.

Q.8. Answer the following:

a) Discuss the role of social media in communal polarization. Suggest ways to combat it.           (20 Marks)

Social media has emerged as a powerful tool for communication and information dissemination in recent times. While it has undoubtedly connected people across the globe and enabled the sharing of ideas and perspectives, it has also played a significant role in communal polarization. Communal polarization refers to the division and animosity between different religious or ethnic communities, often leading to violence and social unrest.

Role of Social Media in Communal Polarization:

1. Rapid dissemination of unverified information: Social media platforms allow users to share information quickly and easily, which means that rumors, fake news, and misinformation can spread rapidly, causing panic and unrest among communities.

2. Echo chambers: Social media platforms often create echo chambers where users are exposed to information that confirms their existing beliefs, leading to increased polarization and radicalization of opinions.

3. Hate speech and incitement: Social media provides a platform for hate speech and incitement to violence, often targeting specific religious or ethnic groups. This can exacerbate existing tensions and contribute to communal polarization.

4. Anonymity: The anonymity that social media provides allows individuals to spread hatred and incite violence without facing any consequences, making it easier for them to promote communal polarization.

5. Political exploitation: Political parties and leaders often use social media to exploit communal sentiments and polarize communities for electoral gains.

Ways to combat communal polarization through social media:

1. Promote digital literacy: Educate people about responsible use of social media, and create awareness about the dangers of fake news and misinformation. This can be done through educational institutions, government campaigns, and non-governmental organizations.

2. Strengthen fact-checking initiatives: Encourage and support fact-checking organizations and initiatives that debunk fake news and provide accurate information to social media users.

3. Encourage counter-speech: Promote counter-speech and alternative narratives that challenge hate speech and polarizing content on social media. This could involve working with religious and community leaders, civil society organizations, and influencers to create positive messages and foster dialogue.

4. Regulate social media platforms: Hold social media companies accountable for the content on their platforms and require them to take prompt action against posts that incite violence or promote communal polarization.

5. Strengthen legal provisions: Enforce existing laws against hate speech and incitement to violence more effectively, and consider updating laws to specifically address the challenges posed by social media.

Examples:
(a) In 2013, the Muzaffarnagar riots in Uttar Pradesh, India, were fueled by a video circulated on social media that was later found to be unrelated to the incident. This led to the loss of over 60 lives and displacement of thousands of people.
(b) The 2018 communal violence in Sri Lanka was triggered by hate speech and fake news circulated on social media platforms, particularly Facebook, leading to attacks against the Muslim community.

In conclusion, social media plays a significant role in communal polarization, and it is essential to address this issue through education, regulation, and promoting dialogue. It is crucial to understand the contemporary challenges posed by social media in the context of communal harmony and national integration.

b) Urban settlements in India tend to replicate its rural caste-kinship imprints. Discuss the main reasons.           (20 Marks)

Urban settlements in India have been rapidly growing over the past few decades, with increasing urbanization and migration from rural areas. However, the caste-kinship system, which is deeply entrenched in the rural social fabric, continues to influence the structure and functioning of urban settlements. The main reasons for the replication of rural caste-kinship imprints in urban settlements are as follows:

1. Migration Patterns: The migration of people from rural areas to urban settlements often occurs in groups, with people from the same caste, kinship, or village moving together to a new location. This contributes to the formation of caste-based clusters in urban settlements. For example, the Patidar community from Gujarat has migrated to various cities in India like Mumbai and Ahmedabad, leading to the formation of Patidar-dominated neighborhoods.

2. Social Networks: Migrants usually rely on their existing social networks, which are often caste-based, for support and assistance in their new urban environment. These networks help them in finding employment, housing, and social support. As a result, caste-based networks continue to grow and strengthen in urban settlements, reinforcing the caste-kinship imprints.

3. Employment Opportunities: In many urban areas, informal sector jobs are often organized along caste lines. This is because caste-based social networks help people access resources, information, and opportunities. For example, waste collection and sanitation work in many cities are predominantly carried out by the lower caste groups, such as the Valmiki community.

4. Housing Segregation: Caste-based discrimination in housing is a common phenomenon in urban settlements. This discrimination leads to the formation of caste-specific neighborhoods, where people from the same caste reside together. For instance, in cities like Delhi and Mumbai, there are separate housing colonies for specific castes like Jats, Brahmins, and Dalits.

5. Cultural Practices: Cultural practices related to marriage, festivals, and religious ceremonies continue to be caste-based in urban settlements. People often prefer to interact and socialize with members of their own caste, leading to the reinforcement of the caste-kinship imprints.

6. Political Mobilization: Caste-based political parties and organizations play a significant role in urban politics. They mobilize their support base along caste lines, leading to the perpetuation of caste identities and divisions. For example, political parties like the Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP) and the Samajwadi Party (SP) have a strong caste-based support base in Uttar Pradesh.

7. Educational Institutions: Many educational institutions in urban areas continue to practice caste-based reservations and segregation, which further reinforces the caste-kinship imprints in urban settlements.

In conclusion, the replication of rural caste-kinship imprints in urban settlements in India is a multifaceted phenomenon, driven by social, economic, cultural, and political factors. To address this issue, there is a need for inclusive policies and interventions at various levels, aimed at promoting social integration and reducing caste-based divisions in urban settlements.

c) Does "economic empowerment" automatically bring about "substantive empowerment" for women? Briefly describe the main issues in women empowerment in India.           (10 Marks)

Economic empowerment does not automatically bring about substantive empowerment for women. While economic empowerment can provide women with the resources, skills, and opportunities to participate in and benefit from economic activities, it does not guarantee substantive empowerment, which is the actual ability to make choices and exercise power. Substantive empowerment requires addressing deep-rooted social norms, cultural practices, and patriarchal systems that hinder women's access to power and decision-making.

The main issues in women empowerment in India are:

1. Gender inequality: India ranks 140 out of 156 countries in the gender inequality index (Global Gender Gap Index 2021). Discrimination against women starts from birth, with the preference for male children, leading to skewed sex ratios and female infanticide.

2. Lack of education: Though the literacy rate for women has improved, there is still a significant gender gap in education. Female literacy rate is 70.3% compared to 84.7% for males (Census 2011). Many girls drop out of school due to various socio-economic factors such as early marriage, domestic responsibilities, and safety concerns.

3. Economic disparities: Women's participation in the workforce in India is low, at around 20% (World Bank 2021). This is due to various factors, including limited access to job opportunities, the gender pay gap, and the burden of unpaid care work.

4. Health and nutrition: High rates of maternal mortality, anemia, and malnutrition are prevalent among women in India. Many women lack access to quality healthcare, sanitation, and proper nutrition, which affects their overall well-being.

5. Violence against women: India faces a high prevalence of gender-based violence, including domestic violence, sexual harassment, rape, and dowry-related violence. The patriarchal mindset and social norms often justify or perpetuate such violence, making it difficult for women to come forward and seek justice.

6. Legal barriers: Although the Indian constitution guarantees equal rights for women, the implementation of laws and policies remains weak. Discriminatory personal laws, and barriers in accessing justice, hinder women's empowerment.

Examples:
(a) The Self Help Group (SHG) movement in India has helped empower women economically by providing them with financial services, skill development, and livelihood opportunities. For example, the Kudumbashree program in Kerala has been successful in providing women with economic opportunities and improving their social status.
(b) The Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) has contributed to women's economic empowerment by providing a legal guarantee of 100 days of wage employment per year. This has increased their participation in the labor force and improved their bargaining power within households.
(c) The Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao campaign, launched in 2015, aims to address gender imbalance and promote the education of girl children. This campaign targets districts with low sex ratios, high gender gaps in education, and low child sex ratios at birth.
(d) The Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana, a flagship program of the Indian government, has improved women's health and well-being by providing them with access to clean cooking fuel (LPG). This has reduced indoor air pollution and the time spent on collecting firewood, allowing women to pursue education and employment opportunities.