UPSC Mains Previous Year Questions 2020: GS1 History | History for UPSC CSE PDF Download

Q1: The rock-cut architecture represents one of the most important sources of our knowledge of early Indian art and history. Discuss. (Ancient History and Art & Culture)
Ans: Rock-cut architecture involves shaping structures by carving them out of natural rock. In ancient India, notable rock-cut structures include Chaityas, Viharas, and temples.

Key Points:

• The Mesolithic period witnessed the first use of rock-cut designs, with overhanging cave rocks adorned with petroglyphs, as seen in Bhimbetka.
• In the 3rd century BCE, Mauryans constructed rock-cut caves in Barabar and Nagarjuni hills for Avijika and Jain ascetics, featuring distinctive bow-shaped arches.
• The Gupta and Vakataka period (3rd - 6th century CE) marked a golden age for rock-cut architecture, with elaborate designs and pronounced aesthetics, exemplified by the Ajanta Caves.
• Pallava architects created monolithic copies of structural temples, such as the Panch Ratha in Mamallapuram (7th century).
• The Kailash temple at Ellora, constructed by Rashtrakutas, is a unique example excavated from the top down.

Historical Significance:

• Rock-cut architectures, predominantly religious, depict the connection between religion, commerce, and society. The cave walls' stories provide valuable historical information.
• Buddhist monks established cave hermitages near trade routes, using caves as shrines and shelters. Traders often traveled with Buddhist missionaries along these routes.
• The architecture reflects changing realities, with themes shifting from Buddhism to Hinduism during the 6th-8th century CE.
• Cave temples, patronized by southern Indian Hindu kings, were dedicated to Hindu deities.

UNESCO Recognition:

Rock-cut architectures hold a significant place in Indian history, with many structures, such as Ajanta Caves and Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram, listed as UNESCO World Heritage sites.

Q2: Pala period is the most significant phase in the history of Buddhism in India. Enumerate.(Ancient History and Art & Culture)
Ans: The Pala dynasty, founded by Gopala, governed Bengal and Bihar from the 8th to the late 11th century. The Pala rulers, being Buddhists, implemented initiatives and policies that contributed to the flourishing of Buddhism.

Key Points:

• Religious Tolerance: While the majority of Pala subjects were Hindus, the rulers advocated religious tolerance, fostering peaceful exchanges between faiths. This open-mindedness played a crucial role in the assimilation of Hindu Tantrism into Buddhism, giving rise to the Vajrayana philosophy.
• Architecture: The Palas constructed various mahaviharas, stupas, chaityas, temples, and forts. Dharmapala's creation, the Somapura Mahavihara at Paharpur, stands as one of the largest Buddhist viharas in the Indian subcontinent.
• Sculpture: Pala-era sculptures, crafted from stones and bronze, drew inspiration from Buddhism. Notable examples include two standing Avalokiteshwara images from Nalanda and crowned Buddhas, signaling a departure from earlier bareheaded ascetic figures.
• Paintings: Reflecting the Tantrayana-Vajrayana aspects of Mahayana Buddhism, Pala miniatures, such as those found on the Astasahasrika-prajnaparamita text, are visual expressions of these cults.
• Universities: Pala-period universities, like Vikramshila and Odantipur, became hubs for Buddhist studies. The Palas supported these institutions, attracting scholars worldwide to learn Buddhist tenets. Buddhist teachers from the Pala kingdom also spread the faith to Southeast Asia, with figures like Atisha preaching in Sumatra.
• Foreign Policy: The Palas actively engaged with diverse cultures to promote new trade routes. The empire maintained strong connections with Southeast Asia and the Middle East. Devapala, for instance, granted villages to the Shailendra king of Java for the upkeep of the matha established at Nalanda for scholars from that country.

Legacy:
The Pala dynasty not only provided an environment for thriving Buddhist philosophies but also facilitated the global spread of these ideas, leaving a lasting legacy that remains visible today.

Q3: Evaluate the policies of Lord Curzon and their long term implications on the national movement.(Modern History)
Ans: Lord Curzon assumed the role of Viceroy of India in 1899 when the national movement was still in its early stages. The Indian National Congress, established in 1885, was initially dominated by moderates advocating pleading and petitioning to address their demands.

Policies Implemented by Lord Curzon:

• Imperialism: Lord Curzon, a staunch imperialist with deep-seated racist beliefs, viewed Britain's "civilising mission" as paramount. He was intolerant of Indian political aspirations, aiming to stifle the national movement. His ambition was famously expressed as, "Congress is tottering to its fall, and one of my greatest ambitions while in India is to assist it to a peaceful demise."
• Calcutta Corporation Act, 1899: This act reduced the number of elected representatives in the Calcutta Corporation, aiming to undermine Indian self-governance and cater to the interests of the European business community, which complained of delays in license grants.
• University Act, 1904: Under the pretext of improving education standards, this act reduced the number of elected senate members, leading to a nationwide movement against it.
• Bengal Partition, 1905: Bengal was divided into two separate provinces, ostensibly for administrative convenience but with the real motive of curbing rising nationalism among Bengalis. Curzon aimed to create divisions based on religious identity.

Implications of Curzon’s Policies:

• The measures taken by Curzon to suppress political aspirations generated resentment, sparking a confrontation with educated middle-class nationalists.
• The Swadeshi movement began in Bengal in 1905, urging the boycott of British goods and promoting swadeshi. It marked one of the first widespread movements after the 1857 revolt and set the stage for future movements like Gandhiji's Non-Cooperation.
• Initially following moderate lines, the Swadeshi movement evolved into a nationwide anti-colonial movement, led by figures like Tilak, Bipin Pal, and Aurobindo Ghose.
• Revolutionary organizations like Jugantar emerged, actively engaging in anti-colonial activities and instilling nationalism among the youth.
• The Bengal partition and Curzon's high-handed approach fueled the national movement, paradoxically strengthening and expanding the influence of nationalism. His policies inadvertently empowered extremists and revolutionaries who rejected the idea of pleading and petitioning.

Q4: Indian philosophy and tradition played a significant role in conceiving and shaping the monuments and their art in India. Discuss.(Ancient History and Art & Culture)
Ans: Indian philosophy encompasses philosophical traditions that developed in the Indian subcontinent, including Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain Philosophy, among others.

Influence of Philosophy on Monuments and Art: Art, as a cultural activity, serves as a means through which individuals express ideas, values, feelings, aspirations, and reactions to life. The connection between philosophy and monuments, from Asoka’s Pillars to Chola’s Brihadeshwara temple, is inseparable.

The early monuments were primarily influenced by Buddhism and Jainism, with Hinduism gaining prominence during the Gupta period.

• Buddhist Influence: Monuments like Asokan Pillars and Stupas reflect Buddhist philosophies, depicting teachings, stories, and symbols associated with Buddhism. For example, the Chakra of Sarnath’s pillar symbolizes Dharmachakrapravartana.
• Places for Meditation: Rock-cut caves such as Lomas Rishi, Ajanta, or Ellora were carved out to provide places for meditation for ascetics from Ajivika, Jainism, and Buddhism.
• Depiction of Teachings: Engravings, paintings, and sculptures in these caves depict the teachings of these philosophies. Ajanta caves showcase paintings illustrating the life cycles of Buddha, while Ellora caves contain images of 24 Jinas.
• Jain Influence: Jain temple works include carvings of Jinas, gods, goddesses, yaksa, yakshi, and human devotees. Jain viharas' cells are designed for rigorous asceticism by Jain monks.
• Hindu Influence: Hindu temple architecture evolved from the Gupta period onwards, with styles like Nagara, Vesara, and Dravida. Hindu temples' architecture and walls are adorned with sculptures influenced by Hindu epics and mythologies.
• Symbolism in Hindu Temples: Khajuraho temple's layout reflects Hindu symbolism for three realms (trilokinatha) and five cosmic substances (panchbhuteshvara).
• Monolithic Temples: Monolithic temples like Kailasha at Ellora and Group of monuments at Mamallapuram have been influenced by Hindu religion and mythology, narrating stories from Shivapurana, Mahabharata, etc.
• Comprehensive Influence: Indian philosophy and traditions have significantly influenced the architecture and interiors of monuments, although they have also incorporated elements from activities such as trade and cultural interaction.

Q5: Persian literary sources of medieval India reflect the spirit of the age. Comment.(Ancient History and Art & Culture)
Ans: 

Interaction of Islamic and Indian Cultures during Mughal Rule: With the arrival of Mughals, Turks, and Afghans, the Islamic and Indian cultures engaged in mutual influence during the medieval period. Persian became the dominant language, replacing Sanskrit in regions under Muslim rule.

Persian Littérateurs and Literary Contributions:

• Amir Khusrau: Notable works include Panch Ganj, Matla-ul-Anwar, Shirin wa Khuarav, Laila wa Majnun, Aina-i-Sikandari, and Hasht Bihisht. He introduced Hindi words and idioms, incorporating Indian themes into his works.
• Shams Siraj Afif: Wrote Takih-Firoz Shahi, providing valuable insights into Firoz Shah Tughlaq's reign, detailing policies and the irrigation tax system.
• Khawaja Najm-ud-Din Hasan: Authored Fawaid-ul-Faud, recording conversations with the saint Nizamud-Din Aulia, offering a valuable document on Sufi philosophy.
• Abu’l Fazl: Credited with Akbarnama and Ain-i-Akbari, depicting the Mughal era, its administrative system, and the famous "Account of the Hindu Sciences."
• Dara Shikoh: Translated Hindu scriptures into Persian, including the Persian translation of Upanishads called Sirr-i-Akbar and the translation of Bhagavad Gita. He sought commonalities between Hindu and Islamic traditions.

Impact on Indian Culture:

With the arrival of Muslims, Persian, an Aryan tongue and sister language of Sanskrit, became prominent in India. This cultural confluence in a diverse land like India, known for adopting, blending, and producing composite cultural unity in diversity, continued.

Q6: Since the decade of the 1920s, the national movement acquired various ideological strands and thereby expanded its social base. Discuss. (Modern History)
Ans: 

The Decisive Decade of the 1920s in Indian National Movement: The 1920s marked a significant turning point in the history of the Indian National Movement, bringing about seminal events and changes that profoundly altered the trajectory of the freedom struggle.

Influential Ideologies:

• Gandhian Ideals: Mahatma Gandhi introduced novel concepts of Ahimsa (non-violence) and Non-cooperation, initiating the nationwide Non-Cooperation Movement in the early 1920s as the first true nationwide movement.
• Communist Influence: A potent left-wing movement emerged in the late 1920s and 1930s, blending the struggle for independence with the quest for social and economic liberation. Establishments like the Communist Party of India (1925), All India Trade Union Congress (1920), and Workers’ and Peasants’ Parties (1927) extended communism's influence among workers and peasants.
• Communalism: Post-1922, communalism surfaced, leading to repeated communal riots. Old communal organizations were revived, and new ones like the Muslim League and Hindu Mahasabha pursued their vested interests.
• Revolutionary Activism: Frustration with peaceful methods led to the rise of revolutionary activism. Secret organizations like Hindustan Republic Association (1923) and Hindustan Socialist Republic Association (1928) emerged, with figures like Ram Prasad Bismil, Ashfaqulla Khan, Chandrashekhar Azad, and Bhagat Singh actively engaging in anti-colonial activities and inspiring youth to join the cause.

Expansion of Social Base:
Gandhiji transformed the national movement into a mass movement in the 1920s, attracting participants from diverse backgrounds. Peasants (Eka movement), tribals (Alluri Sitaram Raju), and suppressed social classes began challenging British rule more vigorously.

This newfound awakening empowered suppressed social classes to assert their rights. Movements like the Vaikom Satyagraha in Kerala (1924) and the Adi-dharma movement in Punjab (1926) reflected the aspirations of the oppressed and Dalits.

Women, breaking free from traditional confines, played active roles in the freedom struggle. Figures like Rajkumari Amrit Kaur, Sucheta Kripalani, and Aruna Asaf Ali made significant contributions.

The 1920s witnessed the broadening of the social base, as people from every stratum associated themselves with the national movement through various ideological dimensions. Mass participation added vibrancy and inclusivity to the struggle.